Original subtitles

Eyes have seen the glory...

..through the realisation of the American dream!

..through the realisation NARRATOR: On April 5, 1968,

NARRATOR: On April 5, 1968,

Staff Sergeant Peter Gollagher is on his first operation in Vietnam,

a search-and-destroy mission through the Long Hai Hills.

Across the dateline, in Memphis, Tennessee,

Martin Luther King Jr readies himself to venture out for dinner.

At 32, Gollagher is a little older than most of the men in his unit.

He has a wife and four children back home.

While on patrol, his unit discovers a tunnel complex

While on patrol, built by opposing forces.

built by opposing forces.

As Sergeant Gollagher descends underground,

Martin Luther King steps onto the balcony of his room.

(GUNSHOT)

Both men are fatally shot.

King's murder is a tragedy felt around the world,

symbolic of the escalating turmoil of the 1960s.

Peter Gollagher is just one more casualty of war,

leaving behind another devastated family.

FILE FOOTAGE: Now is the time to really break loose

from the oldies.

WOMAN: Australia in the mid to late 1960s

was becoming a more questioning, more culturally challenging place.

We're seeing the emergence of a growing sense

We're seeing the emergence of social critique.

of social critique.

Activism on issues around Indigenous rights.

Australia was becoming a little less inward-looking

and more globally focused

and more willing to question the norms of their parents' generation.

MAN: I can remember we flew over to Vietnam in 707s.

They do quite a rapid descent into Tan Son Nhat airport. MAN: I can remember we flew over to Vietnam in 707s.

They do quite a rapid descent into Tan Son Nhat airport.

And I didn't realise just how big that airport was.

MAN 2: We arrived at the airport in Saigon

and very hot, noisy, crowded, busy, military vehicles everywhere.

Armoured jeeps with machine gun belts. and very hot, noisy, crowded, busy, military vehicles everywhere.

Armoured jeeps with machine gun belts.

We knew we were in a war zone.

MAN 3: There were two Australian bases in Vietnam,

the forward base at Nui Dat, where the infantry was stationed

and support troops were based

in Vung Tau.

The logistics base was set up at Vung Tau, in Vung Tau.

The logistics base was set up at Vung Tau,

The logistics base was set up virtually in the sandhills.

virtually in the sandhills.

It would grow to be a hideous monster.

It was a hub of activity night and day.

Nothing prepared any of us

Nothing prepared any of us for the conditions that we had to work and live in.

for the conditions that we had to work and live in.

Nothing.

We turned up to a Nissen hut with no running water, Nothing.

We turned up to a Nissen hut with no running water,

We turned up to a Nissen hut with no running water, no air conditioning.

no air conditioning.

We had practically no equipment.

We were able to improvise.

FILE FOOTAGE: In South Vietnam, the Australian's responsibility

FILE FOOTAGE: In South Vietnam, is the province of Phuoc Tuy,

is the province of Phuoc Tuy,

only half an hour by plane from Saigon.

MAN: We needed to have an advanced camp

and that was Nui Dat, which became the main base.

MAN 2: Nui Dat, it was allegedly our home,

but I probably only spent, in the six, seven months we were there,

I think I would've been lucky to spend four weeks in Nui Dat. but I probably only spent, in the six, seven months we were there,

I think I would've been lucky to spend four weeks in Nui Dat.

MAN 3: Well, our daily life was spent outside the wire

MAN 3: Well, our daily life by most of the infantry troops,

by most of the infantry troops,

outside the camp perimeter, on patrols. by most of the infantry troops,

outside the camp perimeter, on patrols.

Some of those might last up to six weeks.

(CHUCKLES) When we were patrolling, Some of those might last up to six weeks.

(CHUCKLES) When we were patrolling,

there was always something that was attacking us.

there was always something that was attacking us. Green ants were top of the list.

Green ants were top of the list.

Miserable little mongrels that used to give us a terribly hard time.

Especially if you're carrying a radio

'cause you brush against these trees with your antenna

and you get a load of ants down your back, and they used to bite.

(CHUCKLES) You try and squash 'em against a tree

and you couldn't get the gear off. You just had to let 'em bite.

In the jungle, it's just a sea of leeches.

If you sit down for more than a few minutes, they're on you.

And they were huge, these... You know.

McKAY: I once had a leech that had inserted itself with one foot

McKAY: I once had a leech that on the head of my penis

on the head of my penis

and the other foot on the head of my penis

and the other foot down the urethra tube,

which was...quite unpleasant and...

..prompted some rather nasty ribald comments from my diggers

..prompted some rather nasty who saw me bleeding from the groin.

who saw me bleeding from the groin.

Along with leeches, bugs and beasties,

the list of things trying to kill the Australians

the list of things trying to kill included the Viet Cong.

included the Viet Cong.

The enemy would've known that the base defences

had still not been completed

in the couple of months that they'd had since setting up the base.

The Viet Cong quickly took advantage of this vulnerability.

The Viet Cong quickly took advantage And on the 17th of August, 1966,

And on the 17th of August, 1966,

very early in the morning,

enemy forces fired mortars and very early in the morning,

enemy forces fired mortars and rockets into the task force base.

enemy forces fired mortars and Explosions detonating in the base.

Explosions detonating in the base.

A number of men wounded.

When daylight broke, D Company were sent out to begin searching

for the locations the enemy had been in.

MAN: We got the word that we would be going out.

The mood I think was, "We'll just go for a little walk into the bush MAN: We got the word that we would be going out.

The mood I think was, "We'll just go for a little walk into the bush

The mood I think was, "We'll just go "and nothing will happen."

"and nothing will happen."

GRAHAM SMITH: We set out with two platoons forward

spread out over a fair area, and then a platoon in the rear.

spread out over a fair area, and then a platoon in the rear. And it wasn't too long before 11 Platoon, they were fired on.

And it wasn't too long before 11 Platoon, they were fired on.

11 Platoon were able to become separated.

They had put on a couple of hundred metres

between the rest of the company and themselves.

between the rest of the company The other two platoons at this stage

The other two platoons at this stage

were trying to link up with 11 Platoon.

The position that the platoons of D company found themselves in

was right on the edge of a disused rubber plantation,

a very difficult place to search for an enemy.

When the enemy first opened up, it was horrendous.

Reports initially that we might have been facing a platoon,

then it was company strength and then higher than that.

There was a lot of enemy in the area, about 2,000

There was a lot of enemy so developed the Battle of Long Tan.

so developed the Battle of Long Tan.

so developed the Battle of Long Tan. D company had really gone into this, what was now an extended firefight,

D company had really gone into this, what was now an extended firefight,

at perfect range for the artillery back at Nui Dat, at the base,

at perfect range for the artillery to bring in its force.

to bring in its force.

MAN: The D Company guys,

they knew that if they call on Australian artillery,

they got them where they wanted them.

they got them You yell, we shell.

You yell, we shell.

HARRY SMITH: Artillery fired from behind us,

HARRY SMITH: Artillery fired over the top of our heads,

over the top of our heads,

to about 50 metres in front of our soldiers

into the rubber plantation where the enemy were.

Gradually, it was ordered, "Danger close."

That means we're just about dropping it on top of our troops.

That means we're just about They could be killed.

They could be killed.

Not long after we started firing, the heavens opened.

As the rain hit the ground, it raised this mist of mud

As the rain hit the ground, about 30 centimetres.

about 30 centimetres.

Might have silhouetted the enemy about 30 centimetres.

Might have silhouetted the enemy if they were close enough,

Might have silhouetted the enemy but it also hid us.

but it also hid us.

So 11 Platoon were being attacked

from at least three sides at that time.

Eventually we did get the survivors of 11 Platoon back to us.

Eventually we did get the survivors We went into all-around defence.

We went into all-around defence.

So, the bullets were flying thick and fast.

You'd be firing at them, and you'd see them drop

and you'd think, oh, you've got them.

After a while another assault would come in

and then they'd jump up and join that wave.

They were reinforcing themselves on their way in.

They had trumpets, they were blowing trumpets

and that put the fear of God into us.

It was tenuous at that point.

When I heard the bugles I thought, "There is a lot.

"You're running out rounds and we're not running out of enemy."

I'd done a couple of laps around the rosary beads.

We realised that we needed ammunition resupply,

which the battalion headquarters started to prepare.

How it was going to get out there was on helicopters.

However, the officer that was at Nui Dat said,

"This breaches our flying rules, so they can't go."

MAN: Delta Company were surrounded by many, many enemy.

They had the sense they were gonna be overrun,

the task force was about to be attacked.

the task force was about to be attacked. NARRATOR: Bob's captain was Flight Lieutenant Frank Riley.

NARRATOR: Bob's captain was Flight Lieutenant Frank Riley.

Frank, just being the sort of very gung-ho guy, just said,

"Well, I don't care, I'm going. My helicopter, I'm going."

I said, "What the hell are you doing, Frank? This is suicide."

As we lifted up out of the helicopter pad,

As we lifted up there was this huge thunderstorm

there was this huge thunderstorm

that was over the top of Long Tan.

It was a time of apprehension.

My image was we would be shot out of the sky.

DRINKWATER: While the actual battle's on,

you're scared but you're still getting on with what you have to do

you're scared but you're still or it's all over, red-rover.

or it's all over, red-rover.

We couldn't move very quickly.

The windscreen wipers on the front of the helicopter

were going flat out but you couldn't see anything through them.

However, there's a Perspex panel beneath the feet of the pilot

and so I could look down between my feet and navigate.

You throw smoke where the helicopters see the smoke

You throw smoke and then they drop.

and then they drop.

I was talking to Frank Riley's and then they drop.

I was talking to Frank Riley's aircraft on my radio,

then he flew in and hovered momentarily,

dropped the ammunition through the rubber canopy

and I said, "You bloody beauty, right on target."

In the meantime, a relief company had been sent out from the base,

mounted in armoured personnel carriers.

When the armoured personnel carriers arrive,

the firing stopped and it was completely quiet.

There wasn't a shot fired after that.

There wasn't a shot fired And this was right on dusk.

And this was right on dusk.

I can remember coming back to Nui Dat after it's all over

and Harry says, "Well, I was gonna get rid of you, Smithy."

He said, "But now you're welcome to stay."

And the reason he was gonna get rid of me

is because I was a bit prickly myself at times and...

is because I was a bit prickly ..a bit free with my fists.

..a bit free with my fists.

As the battle had died down, each helicopter had gone out

and picked up the wounded and taken them straight back

and picked up the wounded to the Vung Tau Hospital.

to the Vung Tau Hospital.

EKINS: One individual having survived the night

EKINS: One individual having on this devastated battlefield,

on this devastated battlefield,

been there all night as the fire was coming in,

said to his Australian mates as they came,

"You took your fucking time."

Two men survived on the battlefield overnight.

I know now that task force commander Brigadier Jackson

had been given intelligence from two Australian sources,

that there was a large enemy force

working its way towards Nui Dat.

DRINKWATER: The brigadier knew and he sent a company out.

Not a very good idea, I don't think.

Not a very good idea, But we didn't know that.

But we didn't know that.

Yeah, we were babes in the woods.

Other than the training that we'd been given,

we would have perished, no doubt about it.

It was the way in which my soldiers fought the enemy.

They were young.

They did a wonderful job.

VASSELLA: Harry has always been a professional soldier.

He seemed to know how fit we needed to be.

He seemed to know how fit He trained us like a level above

He trained us like a level above

what the rest of the battalion was being trained at.

what the rest of the battalion People were just disciplined

People were just disciplined

and they did their jobs and they looked after their mates.

And I'm just very proud of how the company worked that day.

Very proud of the boys.

They did what they were supposed to do and they did it well.

EKINS: The Long Tan cross became an emblem

that veterans would always use and still do today.

Coming back from operations,

it's customary for Australians to sit around and consume beers

and share stories.

Needing to set the tone down a bit

and to go over the emotional distress of losses on operations.

McKAY: We wouldn't have our big barbecue

until the second or third night back.

You'd been off alcohol, your stomach had shrunk

You'd been off alcohol, 'cause you're eating hard rations.

'cause you're eating hard rations.

Honestly, you'd drink two beers and 'cause you're eating hard rations.

Honestly, you'd drink two beers and you'd be silly as a two-bob watch.

Honestly, you'd drink two beers and The bulk of the guys are 20.

The bulk of the guys are 20.

They're not taking any prisoners. They'd go for it.

ARROW: There were a lot of Australian and American entertainers

who did go to entertain troops in Vietnam.

They thought that the troops deserved the right

to have some entertainment, to have some down time.

ANGELL: There was the pathos, but there were happy times,

ANGELL: There was the pathos, and we'd party. (CHUCKLES)

and we'd party. (CHUCKLES)

Singing and dancing and what have you.

If you didn't do that, then I don't think we would survive.

NARRATOR: Australian command recognised the importance

NARRATOR: Australian command of maintaining troop morale

of maintaining troop morale

and no-one was more aware of this than Prime Minister Harold Holt.

FILE FOOTAGE: I've just returned from Vung Tau

some 40 miles away from Saigon

where the Australian Prime Minister Mr Holt

has been visiting the RAAF Caribou squadron serving in Vietnam.

MAN: Harold Holt, he visits the troops in Vietnam and they mob him.

One of his recipes for success MAN: Harold Holt, he visits the troops in Vietnam and they mob him.

One of his recipes for success

was to, in a way, embody the American alliance,

and to embody the vigorous youthful nation he wanted Australia to be.

and to embody the vigorous youthful nation he wanted Australia to be. But Holt's unwavering support for the American strategy

But Holt's unwavering support for the American strategy

would soon make him an outlier.

FILE FOOTAGE: In the skies over North Vietnam, a new struggle began.

Operation Rolling Thunder, the bombing of the north,

saw American power being heavily committed

in the hope of forcing Hanoi to capitulate.

By '66, people all around the world were criticising the Americans in the hope of forcing Hanoi to capitulate.

By '66, people all around the world were criticising the Americans

By '66, people all around the world for what they were doing.

for what they were doing.

for what they were doing. The bombing campaign was particularly widely criticised,

The bombing campaign was particularly widely criticised,

including by Britain.

America's prestige and credibility is on the line.

And for the Americans, it's important to remember America's prestige and credibility is on the line.

And for the Americans, it's important to remember

that their national prestige and credibility

is treated like virginity.

is treated like virginity. Once it's given up, it can never be recovered.

Once it's given up, it can never be recovered.

Once it's given up, A vital factor for President Johnson

A vital factor for President Johnson

is to gain more public support for his Vietnam policies.

Recent public opinion polls show that his popularity

is the lowest for any president in 15 years.

It was planned that Holt would visit Washington.

It was not planned as a high-profile event.

Then Holt came and said, "Well, we actually support what you are doing,

"we see no fault in American policy."

Johnson then elevated what had been a low-key working visit

into a full-scale, official visit.

(PLAY FANFARE)

FILE FOOTAGE: Throughout the morning, news of the bombings

had brought the expected cries of escalation.

Against this background of criticism and uncertain developments,

Prime Minister Holt gave vent to the feelings of his country.

In the lonelier and perhaps even more disheartening moments

which come to any national leader,

I hope there will be a corner of your mind and heart

which takes cheer from the fact that you have an admiring friend,

a staunch friend, that will be all the way with LBJ.

(CHUCKLES) (APPLAUSE)

(CHUCKLES) # I started a joke

# I started a joke

# Which started the whole world crying... #

CURRAN: Obviously, Harold Holt's visit to Washington in 1966

CURRAN: Obviously, Harold Holt's is most remembered for his statement

is most remembered for his statement

that Australia would be all the way with LBJ.

That of course, has gone down in Australian history as sycophantic.

Our policy was not to be all the way with LBJ.

We were giving sufficient support to the Americans

We were giving sufficient support to maintain our credibility,

to maintain our credibility,

but no more than that.

So, Holt's enthusiasm for the commitment

seemed excessive to many of those who were involved.

(CROWD CHEERS, FANFARE PLAYS)

LBJ comes to Australia six weeks before the 1966 election,

just before the campaign begins.

I think the first sitting American president to visit Australia.

Australians, they turn out in huge numbers to see him, I think the first sitting American president to visit Australia.

Australians, they turn out in huge numbers to see him,

Australians, they turn out almost like a royal tour.

almost like a royal tour.

almost like a royal tour. # I

# I

# I'm hooked on a feeling

# High on believing... #

WOMAN: We wanted to have this president come and visit us.

It really reflected a very strong sense of identity and affiliation. WOMAN: We wanted to have this president come and visit us.

It really reflected a very strong sense of identity and affiliation.

It's a shift, I think, between Australia's allegiance to Britain,

sort of marking a shift towards American leadership

and the American alliance in that period.

But although there were massive crowds turning out support him,

there was the small but growing anti-war movement.

FILE FOOTAGE: As the motorcade loomed into sight,

scuffling broke out between demonstrators and police.

We start to see small numbers of young people

protesting LBJ's presence, protesting the war.

It's a much more confrontational kind of protest,

aggressive, dangerous kinds of protests

that happened during that tour.

Famously, a group of people

over the other side of the road from where I was,

laid down on the road in front of the car. over the other side of the road from where I was,

laid down on the road in front of the car.

They got flung out of the way, of course, and arrested.

They got flung out of the way, of course, and arrested. FILE FOOTAGE: The clash was brief.

FILE FOOTAGE: The clash was brief.

Police bundled the demonstrators back into the crowd

with little ceremony and the motorcade moved on.

with little ceremony There was a real sense of polarity

There was a real sense of polarity

between some of the anti-war There was a real sense of polarity

between some of the anti-war protesters

versus the much bigger majority that was supportive of the US alliance,

versus the much bigger majority that supportive of the war in Vietnam.

supportive of the war in Vietnam.

The shouts of the demonstrators was drowned by roars of cheering

The shouts of the demonstrators from the crowd.

from the crowd.

MAN: We were determined to show that the Australian people

were not totally united behind this war. MAN: We were determined to show that the Australian people

were not totally united behind this war.

We were planning to have sit downs in front of the cavalcade.

We were planning to have sit downs in front of the cavalcade. And the New South Wales premier Robert Askin says to his driver,

And the New South Wales premier Robert Askin says to his driver,

And the New South Wales premier "Run over the bastards!"

"Run over the bastards!"

# Run, run, run the bastards over

# Run, run, run the bastards over... #

At that point, there is still not a long tradition of radical protests.

The idea that people would lay down on a road

was sort of seen as a bit embarrassing too, I think.

was sort of seen as a bit "How dare they do this

"How dare they do this

"when we've got the leader of the free world here."

So, not popular. Really unpopular amongst most Australians.

So, not popular. Really unpopular # Run, run, run the bastards over

# Run, run, run the bastards over

# Run, run, run the bastards over # Run, run, run the bastards over

# Run, run, run the bastards over

# Run, run, run the bastards over # As I said to LBJ. #

# As I said to LBJ. #

In 1966 publicly, the big issue was Vietnam.

And we call it the Vietnam election.

(MAN SPEAKS INDISTINCTLY, CROWD CHANTS)

It's very unusual for Australia to fight general elections

on foreign and defence policies.

FILE FOOTAGE: Fist fights broke out all over the hall.

Sir Wilfred Kent Hughes ripped anti-conscription signs

Sir Wilfred Kent Hughes ripped from the hands of demonstrators.

from the hands of demonstrators.

Holt fought the 1966 election on the policies of conscription.

By doing so, he won a bigger majority

than any previous government had won in Australia's electoral history

than any previous government had won up until that time.

up until that time.

(APPLAUSE)

CURRAN: The reaction of the Australian people

was very much a cultural impulse

stirred by having a culturally related great power here,

protecting Australia from the Asian threat.

FILE FOOTAGE: Alternative governments might weaken

FILE FOOTAGE: Alternative our alliances abroad,

our alliances abroad,

particularly with the United States,

which means so much to the continuing security

which means so much of our nation and our people.

of our nation and our people.

MAN: Australia back then was still suffering from this idea

of the Asian hordes from the North. MAN: Australia back then was still suffering from this idea

of the Asian hordes from the North.

Australia had the White Australia Policy, for goodness sake.

EDWARDS: By this time, we'd increased the initial commitment

EDWARDS: By this time, we'd to two battalions.

to two battalions.

But there was a lot of internal to two battalions.

But there was a lot of internal debate about the war.

But there was a lot of internal Holt, by 1967,

Holt, by 1967,

his attitude had totally changed.

He too couldn't see a way out.

There was a lot of pressure He too couldn't see a way out.

There was a lot of pressure from the Americans

There was a lot of pressure to raise that to a third battalion.

to raise that to a third battalion.

Holt agreed to the Third Battalion, but he said to the Americans,

"We cannot do anything more than this.

"We cannot do anything more "This is the absolute limit."

"This is the absolute limit."

NARRATOR: A cap "This is the absolute limit."

NARRATOR: A cap on our military commitment

wasn't enough for a growing number of Australians

who didn't want anything to do with the war.

When I was a young man, in our family we were brought up who didn't want anything to do with the war.

When I was a young man, in our family we were brought up

to think for ourselves.

Anything could be discussed, without rancour.

I felt deeply disturbed about the nature of the war in Vietnam.

It was very obvious that the war was wrong, I felt deeply disturbed about the nature of the war in Vietnam.

It was very obvious that the war was wrong,

if you had taken an interest, and I had.

# See the pyramids along the Nile

# Watch the sun rise from a tropic isle... #

One reason why I started protesting in 1969

was because bombing in civilian areas and the use of napalm,

how could this possibly be helping in the war against communism?

I was shocked that our government had agreed to become involved.

# You

# Belong to

# Me. #

But the thing that moved me quickest was the conscription.

MAN: Conscription, if it was good for the nation

then bung it on for everybody.

But no, 1 in 12.

Who decided, cynically, to target those group of people,

19, 20, without the right to vote? Right. Who decided, cynically, to target those group of people,

19, 20, without the right to vote? Right.

And to think that you could palm that off

onto the Australian population unquestioned?

onto the Australian population unquestioned? C'mon, hells bells!

C'mon, hells bells!

Look, you got kids at school, final year of school...

And you think they're going to sit on their bums and take that quietly?

We felt an absolute urgency to stop the war.

The urgency of doing something and the urgency of getting mass support.

ARROW: Australians were overwhelmingly

still in support of the war.

Left a lot of dissenting voices

disillusioned with political solutions

to this issue of how does Australia get out of the war?

And it kind of, I think, led to the radicalisation of protest

and pushed a lot of people further to the left.

We're gonna have to think about reaching people another way.

Oh, no. I don't think so.

I think younger people were obviously at the '66 election,

they were trusting the government.

It's just that the trust was misplaced.

It was a totally wrong and unjust war.

FILE FOOTAGE: It's been a long haul now

for the anti-conscription movement.

Ever since the Harold Holt victory in 1966,

Ever since the Harold Holt victory there's been turmoil in the streets.

there's been turmoil in the streets.

We were inspired by the civil disobedience

and the Civil Rights Movement in America,

Martin Luther King's use of civil disobedience,

Martin Luther King's sit-ins, that kind of thing.

sit-ins, that kind of thing.

(SIRENS WAIL)

(CROWD CHANTS)

WILTON: By 1969, there was very active draft resistance movement.

We led quite a small demonstration to Parliament House

where I burnt my draft papers.

I got some letters in the mail, telling me that I was despicable

I got some letters in the mail, and criticised me,

and criticised me,

more in terms of how painful this was going to be for my father.

Because my father was running the war,

he'd organised the move into Phuoc Tuy Province,

he'd organised the move he was the head of the army.

he was the head of the army.

I see there's a few photos here of me. (CHUCKLES)

I was burning my draft card

and that was a very important symbolic act. I was burning my draft card

and that was a very important symbolic act.

Many of us did it at the time. symbolic act.

Many of us did it at the time.

Conscription itself is the tool by which governments can in fact

wage unpopular or unjust wars.

Mm.

(CLUCKS TONGUE)

Many returned soldiers told me how horrific the war was.

Bombs and helicopters and horrendous, they told me.

That...

..is B Company, seven row.

And we were just off to the left here for the next chopper lift out.

McKAY: There's an old Italian proverb that goes,

McKAY: There's an old Italian "Generals die in bed.

"Generals die in bed.

"It's the young men that perish on the battlefield."

A group of women had started an anti-conscription group in Melbourne

and called it Save Our Sons.

And this is just one of our many small demonstrations

And this is just one of our with our banner.

with our banner.

Conscription was the driving force.

I would never support conscription.

We were handing out leaflets at the Commonwealth offices,

We were handing out leaflets where you had to go and register.

where you had to go and register.

We were arrested where you had to go and register.

We were arrested and we had to go to court.

We were arrested The magistrate said,

The magistrate said,

"Obviously the government takes this very, very seriously.

"Obviously the government takes "It's straight to jail."

"It's straight to jail."

And this was a bit of a shock.

Just the city was covered in, "Let these women go."

We had two weeks jail and we were there for 10 days.

(CROWD CHANTS)

Demonstrations work.

I just think it was necessary at the time.

FILE FOOTAGE: Police believe they can control the demonstrations...

FILE FOOTAGE: Police believe they We were incredibly successful

We were incredibly successful

because it was a movement from no protest

because it was a movement to getting what we did accepted.

to getting what we did accepted.

Do you think this is a student riot? I think that's what they want!

Students at the Australian National University

have been demonstrating week on week.

What are you prepared to do here today?

What are you prepared to do here Anything.

Anything.

What have you done so far? Nothing!

ARROW: I imagine that some of the women who were part of SOS,

may well have ended up embracing a version of feminism.

Because I think being part of a social movement,

it educates you in how to be a protester, how to agitate,

it educates you in how to be how to push for change.

how to push for change.

But there was also this kind of cross-fertilisation

and kind of radicalisation happening in different spheres of politics.

and kind of radicalisation happening This past week, Aboriginal leaders

This past week, Aboriginal leaders

from all over Australia This past week, Aboriginal leaders

from all over Australia have been meeting in Canberra.

Do you think that Aborigines are becoming more militant?

I think they are

but not as militant as they could possibly become.

# All I'm askin'

# Is for a little respect... #

FILE FOOTAGE: Can see Charles giving a speech

FILE FOOTAGE: Can see Charles outside the Walgett RSL Club.

outside the Walgett RSL Club.

An Aborigine was denied entry.

The Freedom Rides with Charles Perkins,

exposing the kind of de facto apartheid system

exposing the kind of de facto within Australian country towns.

within Australian country towns.

Things like Aboriginal people couldn't go to the RSL club,

they couldn't go to local swimming pools.

MAN: I'm a part of this nation, this great Australia.

For me personally and for my family, it was very hard MAN: I'm a part of this nation, this great Australia.

For me personally and for my family, it was very hard

because when we were going to school,

we were not learning anything about Australia,

about Australian Aboriginal or anything.

about Australian Aboriginal or anything. Ladies and gentlemen, Mrs Faith Bandler.

Ladies and gentlemen, Mrs Faith Bandler.

FAITH: The Referendum is on Saturday.

And it's important that we should have the maximum vote FAITH: The Referendum is on Saturday.

And it's important that we should have the maximum vote

because the eyes of the world are on Australia.

because the eyes of the world are on Australia. # Give me my propers when you get home... #

# Give me my propers when you get home... #

# Give me my propers BURNS: Aboriginal people,

BURNS: Aboriginal people,

for centuries, they haven't been BURNS: Aboriginal people,

for centuries, they haven't been living their own lives sort of thing.

There was someone from another country

telling them what they can and can't do.

What will it mean if the referendum is passed?

It will be of tremendous advantage to the Indigenous Australian.

We've been here for 60,000 years and this is our country.

We've been here for 60,000 years FILE FOOTAGE: ..foreign policy

FILE FOOTAGE: ..foreign policy

which is not only wrong and unjust!

NARRATOR: Before the 1967 referendum,

Indigenous men were actively excluded from conscription.

I don't think it'll be ever fully known

how many Aboriginal people served in Vietnam,

because a lot of those who signed up didn't say they were Aboriginal.

In the army, we all wore the green skin

In the army, we all wore and we were all there for each other.

and we were all there for each other.

Doesn't matter who you are or what colour or whatever,

when you've been in the navy, army, or air force,

when you've been in the navy, army, you feel you are a part of a family.

you feel you are a part of a family.

As long as you do the right thing,

Australians will do the right thing by you.

For me, that was one of the main motivations to get over there.

In Vung Tau, I met a few Americans.

Americans don't know much about Australia.

"Hey, hey, man, what's Australia like?"

They were a different sort of soldier than what we were.

They were out on patrol with their rifles over their shoulders,

chewing gum and smoking.

And I thought, "No wonder they're getting killed."

Every now and then when you were on operations

Every now and then and you'd be out in the jungle,

and you'd be out in the jungle,

you'd hear these, what sounded like monstrous firefights. and you'd be out in the jungle,

you'd hear these, what sounded like monstrous firefights.

And it turned out that these were

what the Americans called mad minutes.

They'd fire every weapon around a platoon perimeter, what the Americans called mad minutes.

They'd fire every weapon around a platoon perimeter,

just let it rip for five minutes or something.

And Australians generally thought that was rubbish,

any decent Viet Cong would simply lie down,

and the bullets would go whistling overhead.

and the bullets would go It was a waste of time

It was a waste of time

and probably gave the Americans a sense of security

and probably gave the Americans that wasn't deserved.

that wasn't deserved.

They did everything with gusto. They were the noisiest.

But we didn't want to be within cooee of them.

The Americans were there to fight and destroy.

The Australians were there to control and suppress.

NARRATOR: Their work in the tunnels showed just how different

the Australian's approach was to their American counterparts.

The Australians didn't follow the usual American practice

The Australians didn't follow of simply destroying the tunnels.

of simply destroying the tunnels.

The Australians explored them in detail, mapped them

as they worked out what an immense network it was.

BURNS: You know the tunnel systems that they dug were amazing.

Tunnels going everywhere, hospitals built underground.

The Australians also came to appreciate the Viet Cong's ingenuity

The Australians also came to and their perseverance.

and their perseverance.

Their will to win and their perseverance.

Their will to win and win at all costs

is something everybody underestimated.

This vast tunnel network was a defining characteristic

This vast tunnel network of the Viet Cong's approach,

of the Viet Cong's approach,

giving them an enormous tactical advantage

that needed to be neutralised.

The sappers and engineers who were sent down into these tunnels,

terribly confusing to work your way through in the dark,

never knowing whether you'll encounter an enemy

or perhaps a trap door with punji stakes.

There were many encounters with Viet Cong underground.

Quite a few Australians lost their lives as well.

The commander of the sappers and engineers

later said that he was just surprised

that these men had received no formal training

that these men had received rose to the challenge.

rose to the challenge.

With only a small task force available,

Australian command needed to mitigate insufficient troop numbers

to keep opposing forces at bay.

LOCKHART: In 1967, the second task force

Commander Brigadier Stewart Graham, he is faced with the problem

that there's this vast area out into the west

which he doesn't have the troops to cover properly.

And so he wants to extend the barrier function of the base

And so he wants to extend by establishing a minefield,

by establishing a minefield,

which is 11 kilometres long with about 20,000 M16 mines. by establishing a minefield,

which is 11 kilometres long with about 20,000 M16 mines.

I understand he did this against the advice of senior engineers

who knew a lot about minefields.

who knew a lot about minefields. Mine laying is one of the many tasks that sappers would have to do.

Mine laying is one of the many tasks that sappers would have to do.

Mine laying is one of the many tasks that sappers would have to do. We would work as a section.

We would work as a section.

Collectively, we were putting about 400 mines in each day.

Five clusters. Everything's done so slowly.

You tiptoe around,

you're very careful about putting it in, taking out the pins.

When we had completed our five, we stepped out, to the safe tape.

Then the powers that be decided we weren't laying enough mines.

He was giving me a hard time and I was starting to get a bit agitated.

And I spotted my partner over there.

So, I just walked to him.

All of a sudden there was So, I just walked to him.

All of a sudden there was this great movement, rush of air...

..and I feel I'm up in the air, thump on the ground.

..and I feel I'm up in the air, My hands are just blood pouring out.

My hands are just blood pouring out.

I was mesmerised by the flutter...

Shhhhh. ..like confetti coming down over me.

The mine has a killing radius of about 25 metres,

The mine has a killing radius and I knew nothing about the deaths

and I knew nothing about the deaths

until my sister told me and I knew nothing about the deaths

until my sister told me in the hospital

until my sister told me that they were people that I knew.

that they were people that I knew.

That's when the rot set in with me,

aggression, moody, I copped it all.

But then this middle-aged couple, they walked in.

But then this middle-aged couple, They said, "John Thompson, yes?"

They said, "John Thompson, yes?"

They said, "We're Mr and Mrs Brooks, Dennis's parents."

Well, did I sink under the bed clothes then.

I thought they'd come to tear strips off me for killing their son.

Bray Brooks, Mr Brooks, he said, "We know it was an accident.

Bray Brooks, Mr Brooks, he said, "You did not do it on purpose."

"You did not do it on purpose."

And after that, I started to lift again.

I know I was not well-trained for that role.

But at the end of the day, it was my fault.

I'm responsible for these two deaths.

And I decided that the only thing I can do

And I decided that the only thing is whatever I do, it'll be good.

is whatever I do, it'll be good.

I'll do something good,

for the people who have looked after me.

I've never forgotten that moment.

And I like to think I still live by that value.

Before they finished laying the minefield,

one of the troop commanders, he saw 45 holes started to appear

in the field with no mines in them. So, they'd been taken.

One of the crucial bits of information

One of the crucial bits in relation to minefields

in relation to minefields

is that they must be covered by observation and fire.

And that was the failing in Vietnam.

The Viet Cong, sneaking in of a night,

plundered the mines as quickly as they were being laid.

The bravery of the people.

I believe they lost in the vicinity The bravery of the people.

I believe they lost in the vicinity of 30 to 40 people,

trying to work out how to remove them.

But once they worked it out, then it was a free-for-all.

They took hundreds of them out and put them everywhere.

Now, what the Vietnamese did was to plant them ahead of

and use them something like artillery, which they didn't have.

and use them something like Offensive use of mines,

Offensive use of mines,

which is almost unheard of to Australians in Vietnam.

EKINS: They learned to lay them in patterns,

knowing that if you laid one mine,

you only kill the Australian who detonated that.

But if you laid several, when one went off,

the others would rush to his aid and of course you could kill more.

It was devastating to the morale of the men...

..but there was no way of striking back

against the people who'd done it.

GRAHAM EDWARDS: It had a great psychological effect.

This fear, it's at the back of your head all the time.

This fear, it's at the back Was my next step gonna be my last?

Was my next step gonna be my last?

Blokes were really deadset scared of them.

When we were patrolling one day out of a base called the Horseshoe,

our CO was flying overhead in a chopper, directing us.

We were all aware that we were entering an area

that contained indiscriminately laid mines.

I felt pretty good because on top of an APC,

and there's a lot of metal between me and the ground.

The CO, however, he ordered us off the APCs.

I wasn't too happy about that, I can tell you, nor were any of my mates.

As I jumped off, started to walk off,

there was just this incredible bang and dust went everywhere.

there was just this incredible bang My ears were ringing with the noise.

My ears were ringing with the noise.

I collapsed on the ground.

Felt an incredible sense of peace and tranquillity

and I just started to drift off up into the blue sky.

and I just started to drift off It was just so peaceful.

It was just so peaceful.

Within milliseconds, I think, that feeling evaporated

and these incredibly powerful waves of pain

just started to break over me and rack through my body.

My legs were shattered and blood pouring everywhere.

One of my mates started to rush towards me

and I heard everyone call out to him, "Stop, stop."

So, eventually they got to me and they gave me first aid.

Pretty soon, I think the most comforting sound I've ever heard

Pretty soon, I think the most was that whop whop whop.

was that whop whop whop.

That sound overpowered the sound of the CO flying overhead.

And I felt this intense...

..powerful anger towards him being up there in the safety

and not being down there, sharing the danger

of the blokes on the ground that he'd ordered into this minefield.

NARRATOR: Between 1969 and 1970,

more than half the casualties

suffered by the Australian task force were from their own mines.

PETER EDWARDS: Brigadier Graham was promoted to deputy chief of army.

PETER EDWARDS: Brigadier Graham was promoted to deputy chief of army. The minefield did become political,

The minefield did become political,

which made the war increasingly unpopular The minefield did become political,

which made the war increasingly unpopular

and just gave the general impression that it was being badly handled.

and just gave the general impression that it was being badly handled. FILE FOOTAGE: It is sometimes easy to forget what happens to men

FILE FOOTAGE: It is sometimes easy to forget what happens to men

when a war is being fought.

Holt was trying to work out what to do,

Holt was trying to work but it seemed an impossible dilemma.

but it seemed an impossible dilemma.

Holt has been Prime Minister for about 18 months,

and he's not had such a good political year in '67,

and he's not had such a good political year in '67, but things are still going well for him.

but things are still going well for him.

There's certainly no challenges in the Liberal Party to him.

So I would've been 17, I saw a newsflash

interrupt normal programming on television.

"It is feared that the Prime Minister has drowned.

A great search is being made for Mr Holt off Portsea, Victoria.

From Canberra, Mrs Holt flew to the search area,

not far actually from the Holt's holiday home.

Knowing the Prime Minister to be a keen swimmer,

the nation hoped that somehow he might have survived.

the nation hoped that somehow But with the hours, hope faded

But with the hours, hope faded

and Harold Holt, the Prime Minister But with the hours, hope faded

and Harold Holt, the Prime Minister of Australia was never seen again.

This was the first Prime Minister to die in office since John Curtin.

This created a whole sense of shock through the nation.

FILE FOOTAGE: The shock waves from Holt's sudden disappearance

FILE FOOTAGE: The shock waves were felt in Washington.

were felt in Washington.

In Washington, where Secret Service men

keep the President under strict surveillance,

there was surprise that a Prime Minster was allowed to swim

without being closely watched.

A White House official said the President was most upset

because there was no leader in the world

for whom he had more respect and affection than Mr Holt.

CURRAN: I think the Australian people were genuinely flabbergasted

Lyndon Johnson returned for the funeral.

It did seem to indicate a real bond there

and I think that relationship between Harold Holt and Lyndon Johnson It did seem to indicate a real bond there

and I think that relationship between Harold Holt and Lyndon Johnson

was certainly the closest that any Australian prime minister had

with an American president to that time.

with an American president to that time. FILE FOOTAGE: The President now pulling up outside the cathedral.

FILE FOOTAGE: The President now pulling up outside the cathedral.

A gesture I think probably didn't go unnoticed was the fact

that the president's car was flying not only the Stars and Stripes

but also the Australian flag as well.

NARRATOR: Holt's funeral was followed by a power struggle

NARRATOR: Holt's funeral was followed in the Liberal Party.

in the Liberal Party.

About a month later, to everyone's surprise,

John Gorton, then Senator John Gorton, became Prime Minister.

CURRAN: Gorton was an unknown quantity to the Americans.

He was a bit more brash. He was a bit more assertive.

He was a bit more of an Australian nationalist

and he was asking some pretty uncomfortable questions, I think,

and he was asking some pretty about the Vietnam commitment.

about the Vietnam commitment.

You, Mr President, bore the lonely weight of decision

to continue to resist force with force.

Gorton was profoundly sceptical of the Vietnam War to continue to resist force with force.

Gorton was profoundly sceptical of the Vietnam War

and he was more sceptical of the US and its rationale.

and he was more sceptical of the US Thank you, sir.

Thank you, sir.

Thank you, sir. NARRATOR: Just months into his leadership, events in Vietnam

NARRATOR: Just months into his leadership, events in Vietnam

cemented Gorton's doubts about the war.

EKINS: Tet, it's the annual Lunar New Year Festival in Vietnam.

The communist command had agreed to make this a truce

with the South Vietnamese government.

Military installations went into a more relaxed mode.

But everywhere from Saigon to the northern demilitarised zone areas,

But everywhere from Saigon to the there were attacks.

there were attacks.

In the first Tet offensive,

Tens of thousands of North Vietnamese

had been secretly transported into South Vietnam.

Attacks were launched simultaneously on up to 50 installations.

FILE FOOTAGE: Savage Viet Cong attacks gave them temporary control

FILE FOOTAGE: Savage Viet Cong of much of Hue and Saigon.

of much of Hue and Saigon.

They even seized and held part of much of Hue and Saigon.

They even seized and held part of the American embassy itself.

SIMPSON: In our neck of the woods,

we were fighting not only the local Viet Cong, local guerilla soldiers,

but the professionals from North Vietnam.

They were excellent soldiers. They'd stand and fight you.

HOBBS: It really felt like a step back for the allied forces

because they were forced into this urban fighting HOBBS: It really felt like a step back for the allied forces

because they were forced into this urban fighting

because they were forced that they hadn't been used to,

that they hadn't been used to,

and it sort of felt like they were cornered back in.

MAN: The Tet Offensive in '68 was a real wake-up call

MAN: The Tet Offensive in '68 for a lot of urban Vietnamese.

for a lot of urban Vietnamese.

As much as the war was present for a lot of urban Vietnamese.

As much as the war was present in their lives,

As much as the war was present they were a little bit insulated.

they were a little bit insulated.

But that changed in Tet '68 and came with a realisation

that even with America and Australia,

that there was a chance, a good chance that they weren't gonna win. that even with America and Australia,

that there was a chance, a good chance that they weren't gonna win.

The South Vietnamese forces recovered, fought their way back.

The invading or attacking North Vietnamese and Viet Cong

suffered a resounding military defeat.

But the communists won something they hadn't intended.

They won a resounding propaganda victory.

On seeing the scenes of sheer chaos,

highly trusted reporter Walter Cronkite

speaking to the American public

saying that it appears more and more likely

that this war is now going to end in stalemate,

not in the victory that we've been promised.

President Johnson, watching, said, "That's the end.

"If I've lost Watler Cronkite, I've lost Mr and Mrs America."

The turning point was Tet, led to America now seeking

a long-term strategy of de-escalation.

We ask that talks begin promptly.

That they be serious talks

on the substance of peace.

We assume that during those talks,

Hanoi will not take advantage of our restraint.

NARRATOR: As peace talks commenced in Paris,

North Vietnamese forces prepared to again attack Saigon.

The Australians have established themselves in Phoc Tuy,

but they've been called in to go in and occupy

in an enemy-dominated area to the north of Saigon.

The Australians were setting up artillery bases

to provide fire support for ground troops ordered out of Phuoc Tuy.

SMITH: Coral and Balmoral were two fire support bases.

So they had moved the artillery out of Nui Dat SMITH: Coral and Balmoral were two fire support bases.

So they had moved the artillery out of Nui Dat

So they had moved the artillery to these new locations.

to these new locations.

I think there was a great deal of confusion

over how the base was to be established.

This straggling piecemeal fly-in

brought in artillery, brought in troops,

mislocated many of them in the wrong places.

This had all happened under the watchful eye

of the NVA divisional command.

The operation should have been aborted.

The decision to forge on had deadly consequences.

The decision to forge on BURNS: Something unheard of,

BURNS: Something unheard of,

ground forces attacking an artillery unit.

Now, normally the guns are back here

and you've got the infantry up moving forward.

In this particular case, we were attacked.

As soon as I heard the pop, pop, I knew what it was. You know?

Mortars are terrifying things.

You can hear the hiss, the wind Mortars are terrifying things.

You can hear the hiss, the wind going through the tail fins.

And you'll swear in the dark that they're right above you.

The Viet Cong, I could hear them talking.

They're gonna come over and try to take my gun.

There was the thought running through my mind,

"Please let me get one of these rounds off."

They then launched massive human waves of soldiers. Waves of troops.

Great bravery by the men on the ground

Great bravery by the men to try and hold their positions.

to try and hold their positions.

When I got the order to fire Splintex, little darts,

they're about an inch long, metal.

When it comes out of the muzzle, the fuse detonates

When it comes out of the muzzle, and it blows about 5,000 darts.

and it blows about 5,000 darts.

The further they go, they spread out.

If you're in front of them, you got no chance.

But the enemy wasn't finished.

They launched another attack on Coral two days later,

and then one on the base of Balmoral.

The episode became one of the most traumatic since Long Tan.

Probably as near as Australians had come

Probably as near as Australians from being entirely annihilated.

from being entirely annihilated.

They survived simply through bravery and sheer luck.

They survived simply through And they all knew it.

And they all knew it.

The battle of Coral Balmoral was Australia's longest

and bloodiest engagement in Vietnam.

As the battle drew to an end,

our ally, the United States,

was in the grip of social and political upheaval.

FILE FOOTAGE: Race riots rocked New Jersey's largest city...

Snipers make the streets... ..at least 24 persons are killed.

Snipers make the streets... ..augmented by national guardsmen...

..augmented by national guardsmen...

..Looters and racial bitterness

spreads to four nearby suburban towns.

CURRAN: There's a sense in which, in Australia,

that some of the gloss, the shine

is coming off this great power.

And therefore, this will surely affect

how Australia is going about its own commitment to Vietnam.

In 1969, Nixon comes to power early in the year,

he wants to withdraw American troops.

In the previous administration, we Americanised the war in Vietnam.

In this administration,

we are Vietnamising the search for peace.

PETER EDWARDS: For Nixon, Vietnamisation meant

that he would be bringing out American troops

that he would be bringing out to the extent that he could

to the extent that he could

and handing over as much as possible to the extent that he could

and handing over as much as possible to the South Vietnamese forces.

So, the Americans having shunted the Australian battalions

out of the province, now shunt them back in.

And the Australians, having returned to Phuoc Tuy

discovered one local village had drastically changed.

A normal, routine movement of a couple of armoured vehicles

A normal, routine movement drove past Binh Ba.

drove past Binh Ba.

They had no idea that the village had been occupied.

The first hint that there was something afoot in Binh Ba

was when a tank came under fire.

What had been a very friendly village was now hostile.

FILE FOOTAGE: The Australian Fifth Battalion sent in four tanks

backed by helicopters.

By the time the engagement in the rubber plantation hamlet was over,

91 Vietnamese described as Viet Cong were dead

91 Vietnamese described as Viet Cong and 11 taken prisoners.

and 11 taken prisoners.

The enemy fought to the bitter end.

Operation Hammer was an excellent name for what had happened.

The Australians finally left a very badly damaged village,

no longer really recognisable from what it had been.

The village itself was rebuilt mainly by the task force,

and several months later, it was declared restored.

and several months later, It wasn't of course,

It wasn't of course,

it was rebuilt It wasn't of course,

it was rebuilt in the Australian style

it was rebuilt with tin roofs and... (CHUCKLES)

with tin roofs and... (CHUCKLES)

No longer the old beautiful, tiled roofs

and the old Vietnamese pattern had gone, probably forever.

# Like a long lonely stream

# I keep running towards a dream... #

As the Australians persevered with their mission

to suppress the communist insurgency in Phuoc Tuy,

they left an indelible mark on the province.

What we know is that people in Phuoc Tuy province

What we know is that people liked the Australian character.

liked the Australian character.

We cared for them, liked the Australian character.

We cared for them, we weren't arrogant

and the province actually operated relatively peaceful.

My father said of the Australian presence in Vietnam,

My father said of the Australian managing the province of Phuoc Tuy,

managing the province of Phuoc Tuy,

managing the province of Phuoc Tuy, they managed that very well.

they managed that very well.

They were considered to be fair,

and in that sense they left a positive imprint in South Vietnam.

# Gotta run

# I know there's a place # Gotta run

# I know there's a place in the sun... #

NARRATOR: While our troops left a complicated legacy in Vietnam,

the war, and specifically the Battle of Long Tan,

still cast a shadow over the tiny town of Coolah.

We came to Coolah when I was 5.

Paul was about 3.5. And you were only a little bubba.

I was only a baby. You were only little.

He was the only boy.

Very, very much loved.

And he was a dear brother to all of us. He loved us all.

Because of the conscription, his number was pulled out.

And that knocked us around somewhat.

I don't think we all knew where Vietnam was, of course,

in those days you know, a little town like this.

He was good, always writing little letters and notes to us,

which helped us along the way, didn't it?

I remember one, they were out in the jungle,

I remember one, he was bitten by a scorpion.

he was bitten by a scorpion.

When the helicopter came he was bitten by a scorpion.

When the helicopter came to get him out,

he yelled out, "Thank God for the flying doctor."

It was a Saturday morning.

I remember Mum being at the kitchen It was a Saturday morning.

I remember Mum being at the kitchen sink, peeling vegetables,

I remember Mum being at the kitchen I was at the kitchen table.

I was at the kitchen table.

I heard a noise at the front

so I just looked out

and there was a policeman, standing there holding my dad up.

And as I walked out, he handed me a telegram.

And I knew, I didn't need to read the telegram.

Total devastation. Total devastation.

DRINKWATER: Paul was the last man to die on that night

DRINKWATER: Paul was the last man at the Battle of Long Tan.

at the Battle of Long Tan.

Within 10, 15 minutes of the last shot being fired,

he was just laying prone, firing at the enemy

and...bang. he was just laying prone, firing at the enemy

and...bang.

Right between the eyes.

The trees were planted on the day of Paul's funeral

by the local Lions Club.

And there's 18 of them.

One for every young soldier that was killed at Long Tan.

So, they just decided that get these beautiful flowering gums

So, they just decided that get and make an avenue for the young men

and make an avenue for the young men

that gave their lives for all of us.

It was a beautiful way of saying thank you,

It was a beautiful way especially when they're in flower.

especially when they're in flower.

They're just lovely.

His mother used to live across the road,

and she used to come over and water this special one,

and she used to come over and water Paul's one, every day.

Paul's one, every day.

It's the tallest tree on the avenue.

It definitely is...

..enormous compared to the others. Yeah.

CURRAN: They dropped more bombs on those two cities in a 12-day period

than the allies dropped on the entire European continent

than the allies dropped during the Second World War.

during the Second World War.

during the Second World War. This decision really haunted him for the rest of his life.

This decision really haunted him for the rest of his life.

This decision really haunted him All these people were abandoned.

All these people were abandoned.

What did these men die for?

What did any of those die for?

I thought, "Get real, you bastards.

"We figured it out when we were 19, 20, 21!"

"We figured it out Captions by Red Bee Media

Captions by Red Bee Media