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We live in a violent Universe.
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00:00:05,499 --> 00:00:12,459
Planetary winds rage
at six times the speed of sound.
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00:00:12,461 --> 00:00:15,927
Lightning storms stretch
for thousands of miles.
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00:00:15,929 --> 00:00:20,398
Dust storms
engulf entire worlds.
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00:00:20,400 --> 00:00:22,166
We can have planetary storms
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00:00:22,168 --> 00:00:25,570
the like of which we never see
here on the planet Earth.
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The largest storms
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can be on the scale
of entire galaxies.
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00:00:31,542 --> 00:00:34,543
Sometimes those massive stars
can literally explode.
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The universe is a chaotic place.
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00:00:40,781 --> 00:00:43,149
Earth has storms.
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00:00:43,151 --> 00:00:45,983
Other worlds have megastorms,
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storms almost too vast
to imagine.
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Yet from the violence
emerges a ray of hope.
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We kind of owe our existence
to these sorts of events,
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00:00:57,931 --> 00:00:59,697
these sort of galactic storms.
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00:00:59,699 --> 00:01:05,169
Could megastorms
be necessary for life itself?
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00:01:05,171 --> 00:01:09,171
How the Universe Works 2x02
Megastorms Original Air Date on July 18, 2012
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== sync, corrected by elderman ==
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00:01:22,388 --> 00:01:26,491
On some planets,
storms are impossible.
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Superheated Mercury is too small
and too close to our Sun
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to have
a significant atmosphere.
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And no atmosphere
means no storms.
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But move out away from the Sun,
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00:01:43,905 --> 00:01:48,475
and we find worlds with
turbulent, chaotic atmospheres.
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They can spawn some of the most
awe-inspiring megastorms
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00:01:56,917 --> 00:01:59,350
in our solar system.
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00:02:03,522 --> 00:02:05,589
This is Venus,
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a planet completely shrouded
with clouds.
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Winds rip around
the upper atmosphere
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at over 300 miles per hour.
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About 35 miles
above the surface,
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the winds are whipping around
in a ferocious pattern
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that basically carries
the cloud features
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00:02:30,343 --> 00:02:33,042
around the entire planet
every four days.
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Venus is closer
to the Sun than Earth,
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and it's heat from the Sun
that drives the wind.
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00:02:45,356 --> 00:02:47,756
The circulation
pattern of Venus' clouds
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00:02:47,758 --> 00:02:49,058
is actually quite simple.
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00:02:49,060 --> 00:02:51,660
There's a warm side of Venus
and a cold side.
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00:02:51,662 --> 00:02:54,695
And as air warms up and rises
on the day side of Venus,
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it spreads around
to the night side.
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00:02:56,366 --> 00:02:57,898
So, there's
this continuous current
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that's actually
quite a lot simpler
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than the atmospheric circulation
on Earth.
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00:03:01,369 --> 00:03:06,004
Venus' winds circulate faster
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than the fastest hurricane
on Earth.
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00:03:09,675 --> 00:03:12,443
But they look very similar.
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The Venus Express probe
captured these remarkable images
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of the planet's south pole.
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One of the great
mysteries of Venus
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which actually had jaws dropping
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in the halls
of many astronomy departments
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is the fact
that we have hurricanes
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at the poles of Venus,
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especially in the southern
hemisphere, that have two eyes.
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Not one eye, but two eyes.
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00:03:41,403 --> 00:03:43,436
Now, we've never seen this
before
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00:03:43,438 --> 00:03:44,904
on such a planetary scale.
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00:03:48,741 --> 00:03:51,176
Venus' double-eyed vortex
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is 1,800 miles wide.
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Two hurricanes
whirl around each other.
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00:04:00,652 --> 00:04:03,821
If you could descend
into the vortex of Venus,
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00:04:03,823 --> 00:04:05,323
something I would love to do,
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at least with
a remote machine...
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...I think you would see
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00:04:12,632 --> 00:04:16,100
some kind of a fantastic wall
of cloud
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00:04:16,102 --> 00:04:17,969
and this sort of twisting form
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00:04:17,971 --> 00:04:20,538
spinning around you
at ferocious speeds.
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It would be quite a sight.
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00:04:30,149 --> 00:04:31,950
It's a mystery
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how deep this raging,
spinning vortex goes,
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but maybe this megastorm eye
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descends
to the planet's surface.
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Down here, permanent twilight
bathes a volcanic landscape,
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00:04:46,200 --> 00:04:49,134
and the atmosphere's
colossal weight
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creates immense pressure.
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00:04:52,540 --> 00:04:54,807
The atmospheric pressure
on Venus
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is about 100 times
that of the Earth.
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Think of taking a car,
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squeezing it down
to about a square inch,
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and putting it on every
square inch of your skin.
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You'd be flattened
within a fraction of a second
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00:05:08,890 --> 00:05:10,723
because of all that pressure.
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00:05:10,725 --> 00:05:13,525
Venus' dense atmosphere
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creates one of the strangest
megastorms imaginable --
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00:05:17,699 --> 00:05:20,833
four miles per hour winds
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00:05:20,835 --> 00:05:24,870
with the force of a hurricane.
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00:05:24,872 --> 00:05:28,206
The winds on the surface
of Venus are actually very slow
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00:05:28,208 --> 00:05:30,909
because Venus has
a very slow rotation rate.
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00:05:30,911 --> 00:05:33,379
It takes Venus
about eight months
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to turn once around
with respect to the sun.
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00:05:36,485 --> 00:05:39,887
The crushing
atmospheric pressure
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00:05:39,889 --> 00:05:42,990
rams gas molecules
together so tightly
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that they feel
more like a liquid.
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A gentle 4-mile-an-hour breeze
packs a brutal punch.
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It's like a hurricane
in slow motion.
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Winds on Venus
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are totally unlike anything
we see on the planet Earth.
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00:06:02,379 --> 00:06:04,513
You would almost feel,
like, a molasses effect.
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00:06:04,515 --> 00:06:05,781
It'd be quite difficult
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00:06:05,783 --> 00:06:08,283
to simply walk and run
right through the wind.
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Venus' surface is so hostile
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that life is impossible here.
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00:06:28,441 --> 00:06:31,377
But the upper atmosphere's
faster winds
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hold an extraordinary
possibility.
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I harbor this --
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I don't know if I would call it
a hypothesis
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or a scientific fantasy.
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00:06:41,287 --> 00:06:42,954
But I do think it's plausible
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00:06:42,956 --> 00:06:45,623
that there could be
some kind of life living
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in the clouds of Venus.
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00:06:46,926 --> 00:06:49,293
There are certainly
energy sources.
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There's sunlight.
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And there are certainly
nutrients.
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There's carbon,
there's hydrogen,
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there's oxygen --
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all the stuff we think of
that you need to make life
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exists in the clouds of Venus.
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00:07:00,072 --> 00:07:04,175
Earth's upper
atmosphere is full of life --
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00:07:04,177 --> 00:07:09,313
microscopic bacteria
drifting on the wind.
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00:07:09,315 --> 00:07:13,751
Could Venus be the same?
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00:07:13,753 --> 00:07:17,755
Perhaps one day we'll send
a probe to find out.
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00:07:23,228 --> 00:07:28,266
Leave Venus behind,
and the next planet is Earth.
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Here, too,
the weather gets extreme.
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00:07:36,310 --> 00:07:40,079
We are bombarded by tornadoes...
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00:07:40,081 --> 00:07:42,548
hurricanes...
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00:07:42,550 --> 00:07:46,518
and these -- dust storms.
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00:07:46,520 --> 00:07:52,024
On Earth, they're localized.
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But on the next planet out...
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they engulf an entire world.
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Over 100 years ago,
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00:08:12,269 --> 00:08:17,205
astronomers thought
they had found life on Mars.
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00:08:17,207 --> 00:08:22,177
A dark wave spread from the pole
towards the equator.
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00:08:22,179 --> 00:08:25,515
They thought it was
springtime vegetation
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00:08:25,517 --> 00:08:27,617
spreading across the planet.
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00:08:30,188 --> 00:08:34,525
They were right
about the season.
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00:08:34,527 --> 00:08:37,862
Mars tilts
at roughly 23 degrees,
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like the Earth,
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so you would have summer,
fall, winter, spring,
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00:08:41,100 --> 00:08:42,099
like the seasons.
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Seasons bring weather.
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The shadow astronomers saw
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was actually dark rock uncovered
by a violent dust storm.
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It's all because of the way
the planet tilts.
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00:09:05,324 --> 00:09:10,362
The Earth takes one year
to orbit the Sun.
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In January,
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the northern hemisphere
leans away from the Sun,
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00:09:14,701 --> 00:09:18,070
and we get our winter.
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00:09:18,072 --> 00:09:23,643
In June, it leans inwards,
our summer.
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00:09:29,184 --> 00:09:32,020
Mars has gigantic
planetary dust storms
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00:09:32,022 --> 00:09:36,058
the like of which we've never
seen here on the planet Earth.
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Mars has
around the same tilt as Earth,
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00:09:40,965 --> 00:09:43,932
and springtime means storms.
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00:09:43,934 --> 00:09:46,868
The martian surface vanishes
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00:09:46,870 --> 00:09:52,406
under a cloud
of raging dust particles.
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00:09:52,408 --> 00:09:56,075
On Earth,
we get dust storms, too.
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00:09:56,077 --> 00:10:00,079
They can be devastating,
swallowing entire cities.
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00:10:11,259 --> 00:10:15,262
July 5, 2011, Arizona.
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00:10:15,264 --> 00:10:20,334
An unstoppable
5,000-foot-high wall of dust
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00:10:20,336 --> 00:10:23,904
smashes into Phoenix.
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00:10:23,906 --> 00:10:26,273
Day turns to night.
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00:10:26,275 --> 00:10:30,610
Thousands of tons of dust
settle over the city.
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00:10:36,617 --> 00:10:40,386
But the disaster
stays in one place.
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00:10:45,625 --> 00:10:51,329
Mars' dust storms
can engulf the entire planet.
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00:10:54,367 --> 00:10:56,668
On Mars, when dust gets
kicked up once, it lands,
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it can get kicked up
again and again.
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The dust is reusable.
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00:10:59,973 --> 00:11:01,439
On the Earth,
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00:11:01,441 --> 00:11:03,540
when the dust gets kicked up
and then finally settles out,
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00:11:03,542 --> 00:11:05,508
it's probably gonna settle out
into the ocean,
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where it's gone for good.
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00:11:06,611 --> 00:11:08,044
There's nowhere on Mars
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where there isn't ready dust
and sand to add to that storm.
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00:11:11,282 --> 00:11:13,349
So, these storm systems
can kick up
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and last weeks or even months.
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00:11:20,257 --> 00:11:22,958
Mars' incredibly dry atmosphere
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00:11:22,960 --> 00:11:27,763
contributes to the storms'
size and power.
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00:11:27,765 --> 00:11:29,598
In the case of the Earth,
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00:11:29,600 --> 00:11:31,733
dust that gets up
into the atmosphere
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00:11:31,735 --> 00:11:33,735
is rapidly washed out
by the rain
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00:11:33,737 --> 00:11:35,136
and gets into the ocean.
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00:11:35,138 --> 00:11:36,404
In the case of Mars,
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there's no comparable rain
to wash the dust out.
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00:11:39,075 --> 00:11:41,376
So, once the dust gets
into the atmosphere,
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00:11:41,378 --> 00:11:42,444
it just sits there
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00:11:42,446 --> 00:11:44,245
until the particles
by themselves
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00:11:44,247 --> 00:11:45,780
are able to slowly settle out.
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00:11:45,782 --> 00:11:48,083
A lack of rain
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00:11:48,085 --> 00:11:52,988
allows Mars' dust storms
to cover the planet.
191
00:11:52,990 --> 00:11:55,291
But dust storms on Mars
192
00:11:55,293 --> 00:12:00,130
can be equally spectacular
on a much smaller scale.
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00:12:00,132 --> 00:12:05,702
NASA rovers captured
these extraordinary images --
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dust devils sucking up fine,
dry, iron-oxide dust.
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00:12:13,946 --> 00:12:19,484
The biggest dust devils can
reach six miles into the sky.
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00:12:19,486 --> 00:12:23,554
They pump fine particles
high into Mars' atmosphere,
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00:12:23,556 --> 00:12:25,189
creating a haze of dust
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00:12:25,191 --> 00:12:31,096
that may help control
the planet's dry climate...
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00:12:31,098 --> 00:12:35,900
and lead to
a planet-wide megastorm.
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00:12:35,902 --> 00:12:40,805
Even on Mars,
dust storms this big are rare.
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00:12:40,807 --> 00:12:43,441
Astronomers
have detected just 10
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00:12:43,443 --> 00:12:47,078
in the last 100 years.
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00:12:47,080 --> 00:12:51,082
What the ancient astronomers
mistook for life
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00:12:51,084 --> 00:12:52,584
was a megastorm.
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00:13:00,860 --> 00:13:03,161
But even a planet-covering
dust storm
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00:13:03,163 --> 00:13:04,696
is dwarfed by the weather
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00:13:04,698 --> 00:13:07,766
on the next planet
out from our Sun.
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00:13:10,836 --> 00:13:15,240
This is the giant
of our solar system --
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00:13:15,242 --> 00:13:17,275
Jupiter.
210
00:13:29,668 --> 00:13:33,204
Jupiter is gigantic.
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00:13:33,206 --> 00:13:35,940
It's 2? times more massive
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00:13:35,942 --> 00:13:40,878
than all the other planets in
the solar system added together.
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00:13:40,880 --> 00:13:46,084
It's also home
to gigantic megastorms.
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00:13:46,086 --> 00:13:48,686
Jupiter's high-speed rotation
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00:13:48,688 --> 00:13:52,723
drives vast bands
of counter-rotating clouds.
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00:13:52,725 --> 00:13:57,060
Colossal storms build
along the boundaries.
217
00:13:57,062 --> 00:14:02,665
And this is the biggest
of them all,
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00:14:02,667 --> 00:14:06,969
the oldest storm
in the solar system.
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00:14:09,472 --> 00:14:15,478
15,000 miles across
and over 300 years old,
220
00:14:15,480 --> 00:14:18,581
the great red spot.
221
00:14:21,117 --> 00:14:23,785
Around the edges,
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00:14:23,787 --> 00:14:28,723
turbulent winds rage
at over 300 miles per hour.
223
00:14:32,595 --> 00:14:34,629
The great red spot
is a giant vortex,
224
00:14:34,631 --> 00:14:36,931
meaning that,
in the case of the red spot,
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00:14:36,933 --> 00:14:38,433
it has a high-pressure center
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00:14:38,435 --> 00:14:40,869
with winds that swirl
around the outer edge.
227
00:14:40,871 --> 00:14:42,537
So, in that sense,
228
00:14:42,539 --> 00:14:46,774
the great red spot is
a little bit like a hurricane.
229
00:14:46,776 --> 00:14:49,678
A hurricane with a difference.
230
00:14:49,680 --> 00:14:51,680
On Earth,
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00:14:51,682 --> 00:14:56,585
hurricanes feed
off heat from the ocean.
232
00:14:56,587 --> 00:15:00,122
When they hit land,
they start to die.
233
00:15:01,959 --> 00:15:05,427
So, on average,
they last only about a week.
234
00:15:08,365 --> 00:15:09,899
Jupiter does not have land.
235
00:15:09,901 --> 00:15:12,102
Jupiter is
a completely gaseous planet,
236
00:15:12,104 --> 00:15:14,104
and the friction there
is very weak.
237
00:15:14,106 --> 00:15:16,307
And so a vortex,
like the great red spot,
238
00:15:16,309 --> 00:15:17,508
can last indefinitely.
239
00:15:17,510 --> 00:15:19,110
There's nothing to slow it down.
240
00:15:19,112 --> 00:15:21,313
To keep going,
241
00:15:21,315 --> 00:15:25,117
all the red spot needs
is a power source.
242
00:15:29,555 --> 00:15:35,460
On Earth, ultimately,
that's heat from the Sun.
243
00:15:35,462 --> 00:15:40,265
But Jupiter's five times farther
from the Sun than us.
244
00:15:43,136 --> 00:15:47,239
Heat from the Sun is not enough
to drive the red spot.
245
00:15:49,743 --> 00:15:55,547
Instead, Jupiter has
an internal power source --
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00:15:55,549 --> 00:15:58,316
its own immense gravity.
247
00:16:04,822 --> 00:16:08,492
In 1995, NASA launched a probe
248
00:16:08,494 --> 00:16:13,630
straight toward
the giant planet's heart.
249
00:16:13,632 --> 00:16:17,434
It plunged into Jupiter's
upper atmosphere
250
00:16:17,436 --> 00:16:21,872
at over 106,000 miles per hour.
251
00:16:21,874 --> 00:16:23,874
As it fell,
252
00:16:23,876 --> 00:16:28,846
the planet's crushing gravity
ratcheted up the pressure...
253
00:16:28,848 --> 00:16:33,084
10, 15, 20 times
what we feel on Earth.
254
00:16:34,953 --> 00:16:39,657
Winds gusted
to over 400 miles per hour.
255
00:16:43,629 --> 00:16:48,298
The probe gave out
just 100 miles in,
256
00:16:48,300 --> 00:16:50,767
crushed by pressure
257
00:16:50,769 --> 00:16:54,404
and fried by the incredible heat
the pressure generated.
258
00:16:58,243 --> 00:17:00,478
Had the probe made it deeper,
259
00:17:00,480 --> 00:17:03,881
it would have reached
a vast, silvery ocean.
260
00:17:07,586 --> 00:17:11,489
Intense pressures here
turn hydrogen gas
261
00:17:11,491 --> 00:17:14,592
into a churning,
metallic liquid,
262
00:17:14,594 --> 00:17:19,663
superheated to over
40,000 degrees Fahrenheit.
263
00:17:22,767 --> 00:17:27,203
Jupiter's interior pumps out
about twice as much energy
264
00:17:27,205 --> 00:17:31,041
as the surface gets
from the Sun.
265
00:17:36,046 --> 00:17:38,548
This is Jupiter's power source,
266
00:17:38,550 --> 00:17:42,918
the heat that drives
its massive megastorms.
267
00:17:45,321 --> 00:17:47,689
All of the convection,
all of the heat
268
00:17:47,691 --> 00:17:51,360
comes from the hot, dense
interior of the planet itself.
269
00:17:51,362 --> 00:17:53,228
So, the bands of clouds
that you see
270
00:17:53,230 --> 00:17:56,265
that are even counter-rotating,
going in different directions,
271
00:17:56,267 --> 00:17:57,700
those are all driven
272
00:17:57,702 --> 00:18:00,369
by the internal heat
of Jupiter itself.
273
00:18:03,473 --> 00:18:05,040
Jupiter's internal heat
274
00:18:05,042 --> 00:18:08,744
drives its violent megastorms.
275
00:18:08,746 --> 00:18:15,385
But the giant planet may hold
clues to an even deeper mystery.
276
00:18:15,387 --> 00:18:19,189
Could life exist
on other worlds?
277
00:18:23,061 --> 00:18:27,365
NASA's Cassini probe
studied Jupiter
278
00:18:27,367 --> 00:18:31,369
as it flew past
en route to saturn.
279
00:18:31,371 --> 00:18:35,206
It made an extraordinary
discovery --
280
00:18:35,208 --> 00:18:40,145
strange white clouds just north
of the great red spot.
281
00:18:43,015 --> 00:18:47,118
Clouds just like the clouds
on Earth --
282
00:18:47,120 --> 00:18:50,354
droplets of liquid water.
283
00:18:50,356 --> 00:18:54,825
Could Jupiter have
the ingredients for life?
284
00:18:54,827 --> 00:18:56,727
The question of life
on the giant planets
285
00:18:56,729 --> 00:18:57,894
is an interesting one.
286
00:18:57,896 --> 00:18:59,696
You have many
of the ingredients for life.
287
00:18:59,698 --> 00:19:01,130
You have sunlight coming in.
288
00:19:01,132 --> 00:19:02,298
There's liquid water,
289
00:19:02,300 --> 00:19:04,367
at least in the form
of cloud droplets.
290
00:19:04,369 --> 00:19:07,169
On the other hand, if life
can easily exist in clouds,
291
00:19:07,171 --> 00:19:08,971
you might expect
that bacteria and algae
292
00:19:08,973 --> 00:19:10,538
would populate
the clouds on Earth
293
00:19:10,540 --> 00:19:11,873
and the clouds would be green.
294
00:19:11,875 --> 00:19:13,474
We don't see that on the Earth.
295
00:19:13,476 --> 00:19:15,276
We do see microbes
at many altitudes
296
00:19:15,278 --> 00:19:16,978
throughout
the Earth's atmosphere,
297
00:19:16,980 --> 00:19:19,380
but they seem to largely be
blown off of the surface.
298
00:19:21,584 --> 00:19:23,652
It's likely that life on Earth
299
00:19:23,654 --> 00:19:27,055
began on a solid surface.
300
00:19:27,057 --> 00:19:32,694
But could life evolve
without one?
301
00:19:32,696 --> 00:19:34,930
There's no surface on Jupiter,
302
00:19:34,932 --> 00:19:37,265
and so that makes it difficult
303
00:19:37,267 --> 00:19:40,402
for organisms to have
a constant source of water.
304
00:19:40,404 --> 00:19:41,803
So, if you imagine yourself
305
00:19:41,805 --> 00:19:44,305
being a little bacterium
inside a cloud droplet,
306
00:19:44,307 --> 00:19:45,706
you're gonna be in deep trouble
307
00:19:45,708 --> 00:19:47,775
when that cloud droplet
evaporates.
308
00:19:50,846 --> 00:19:54,883
Whether life exists
in Jupiter's clouds or not,
309
00:19:54,885 --> 00:19:58,553
gas giants like Jupiter
and its neighbor Saturn
310
00:19:58,555 --> 00:20:01,890
have all the right
ingredients --
311
00:20:01,892 --> 00:20:07,763
water, heat,
and one other vital element,
312
00:20:07,765 --> 00:20:08,998
a spark...
313
00:20:10,601 --> 00:20:14,770
...lightning
on an unimaginable scale.
314
00:20:32,167 --> 00:20:36,304
These haunting images
are from NASA's Cassini probe.
315
00:20:38,207 --> 00:20:39,842
Its mission --
316
00:20:39,844 --> 00:20:41,977
to explore
one of the solar system's
317
00:20:41,979 --> 00:20:46,415
most awe-inspiring planets...
318
00:20:46,417 --> 00:20:48,650
Saturn.
319
00:20:48,652 --> 00:20:54,089
The probe reveals
Saturn's rings...
320
00:20:54,091 --> 00:20:55,423
moons...
321
00:20:55,425 --> 00:21:00,294
and the planet itself
in near-perfect detail.
322
00:21:05,734 --> 00:21:09,904
Chaotic bands of cloud
race around Saturn
323
00:21:09,906 --> 00:21:12,574
at more than
1,000 miles per hour.
324
00:21:20,216 --> 00:21:24,353
Finding storms herewas no surprise.
325
00:21:24,355 --> 00:21:28,224
It's a planet of storms.
326
00:21:30,594 --> 00:21:33,696
But this was astonishing.
327
00:21:33,698 --> 00:21:36,198
A bolt of lightning --
328
00:21:36,200 --> 00:21:40,637
a gigantic thunderstorm
on an alien world.
329
00:21:46,710 --> 00:21:47,943
Lightning creates
330
00:21:47,945 --> 00:21:51,781
some of the most spectacular
weather on Earth.
331
00:21:53,551 --> 00:21:58,320
Electrical tension builds
between the top and bottom
332
00:21:58,322 --> 00:22:02,157
of a vast 55,000-feet-high
storm cloud,
333
00:22:02,159 --> 00:22:07,596
a maelstrom of water vapor,
rain, and ice.
334
00:22:12,636 --> 00:22:18,208
Tiny ice crystals drive up
past hailstones falling down.
335
00:22:18,210 --> 00:22:23,346
As they rub past each other,
it builds up a charge.
336
00:22:23,348 --> 00:22:27,584
When the strain gets too great,
you get an electric spark.
337
00:22:37,295 --> 00:22:42,599
On Earth, the average lightning
storm stretches 15 miles.
338
00:22:42,601 --> 00:22:47,069
On Saturn, they can reach
around the whole planet.
339
00:22:48,972 --> 00:22:52,508
There are examples of lightning
storms on Jupiter and Saturn
340
00:22:52,510 --> 00:22:54,009
where the anvil cloud --
341
00:22:54,011 --> 00:22:56,445
in other words, the big cloud
at the top of the storm --
342
00:22:56,447 --> 00:23:00,248
starts small and grows
to be 20,000 kilometers long.
343
00:23:00,250 --> 00:23:01,916
That's the size of the Earth.
344
00:23:01,918 --> 00:23:05,286
On Saturn, we registered
one lightning storm
345
00:23:05,288 --> 00:23:07,388
that was 10,000 times greater
346
00:23:07,390 --> 00:23:09,890
than any lightning storm found
on the planet Earth.
347
00:23:12,462 --> 00:23:15,764
Lightning is hotter
than the surface of the Sun.
348
00:23:18,568 --> 00:23:21,771
The atmosphere
literally explodes...
349
00:23:23,075 --> 00:23:25,942
...the sound we call "thunder."
350
00:23:31,015 --> 00:23:35,252
On Earth,
it's the sound of new life.
351
00:23:41,359 --> 00:23:44,128
Lightning seems
scary and destructive,
352
00:23:44,130 --> 00:23:46,630
but actually it's very
productive for life on Earth.
353
00:23:46,632 --> 00:23:47,797
And the reason why is
354
00:23:47,799 --> 00:23:50,434
because of its influence
on atmospheric chemistry.
355
00:23:52,136 --> 00:23:57,173
Every bolt
literally burns the air.
356
00:23:57,175 --> 00:23:59,442
When you have
a lightning discharge,
357
00:23:59,444 --> 00:24:01,577
you get this very
high-temperature,
358
00:24:01,579 --> 00:24:03,045
very energetic plasma,
359
00:24:03,047 --> 00:24:06,047
and that breaks up the nitrogen
molecules in the atmosphere,
360
00:24:06,049 --> 00:24:07,882
frees up those nitrogen atoms
361
00:24:07,884 --> 00:24:10,451
to enter into other kinds
of molecules.
362
00:24:10,453 --> 00:24:14,388
And those nitrates
formed by lightning
363
00:24:14,390 --> 00:24:16,623
allow nitrogen
to go into the soil
364
00:24:16,625 --> 00:24:18,725
as, basically, fertilizer,
365
00:24:18,727 --> 00:24:21,261
enter into plants,
enter into the life cycle.
366
00:24:21,263 --> 00:24:23,797
So, it's the lightning
that frees up nitrogen atoms
367
00:24:23,799 --> 00:24:25,331
in the service of life on Earth.
368
00:24:27,969 --> 00:24:30,003
Earth experiences
369
00:24:30,005 --> 00:24:33,039
8 million lightning bolts
every day...
370
00:24:34,977 --> 00:24:39,146
...helping life evolve
and colonize the planet.
371
00:24:47,456 --> 00:24:52,727
But for Saturn, lightning alone
may not be enough.
372
00:24:52,729 --> 00:24:56,932
There's nowhere
for alien life to live.
373
00:24:58,969 --> 00:25:03,239
One place in our solar system
may solve that problem --
374
00:25:03,241 --> 00:25:06,810
Saturn's moon Titan.
375
00:25:06,812 --> 00:25:08,411
It has an atmosphere.
376
00:25:08,413 --> 00:25:11,047
It has lakes
of liquid methane...
377
00:25:15,119 --> 00:25:18,589
....and its own bizarre brand
of megastorm.
378
00:25:32,166 --> 00:25:35,602
Saturn is
almost 900 million miles
379
00:25:35,604 --> 00:25:37,137
from the Sun.
380
00:25:37,139 --> 00:25:42,909
This far out,
orbiting the Sun takes time.
381
00:25:42,911 --> 00:25:48,282
Saturn's year
is nearly 30 Earth years long.
382
00:25:53,421 --> 00:25:57,959
Right now, it's spring,
and things are heating up.
383
00:26:01,231 --> 00:26:03,966
Now we're moving into
the summer cycle of Saturn,
384
00:26:03,968 --> 00:26:06,335
so the atmosphere
is slightly heating up.
385
00:26:06,337 --> 00:26:08,504
Even as distant as Saturn is
from the Sun,
386
00:26:08,506 --> 00:26:09,972
we've got a little more energy
387
00:26:09,974 --> 00:26:12,241
and we're seeing
the most spectacular storms
388
00:26:12,243 --> 00:26:13,709
we've ever observed on Saturn.
389
00:26:16,012 --> 00:26:18,981
After years of frozen silence,
390
00:26:18,983 --> 00:26:21,916
Saturn is coming alive.
391
00:26:21,918 --> 00:26:25,220
Scientists have waited
nearly 15 years
392
00:26:25,222 --> 00:26:29,323
for the Sun to light up
its north pole,
393
00:26:29,325 --> 00:26:32,192
to reveal extraordinary details
394
00:26:32,194 --> 00:26:34,995
about one of
the strangest megastorms
395
00:26:34,997 --> 00:26:39,633
in the solar system....
396
00:26:39,635 --> 00:26:44,538
Saturn's unique hexagon storm.
397
00:26:47,041 --> 00:26:51,011
A hexagonal pattern,
how can that be?
398
00:26:51,013 --> 00:26:53,180
In mother nature,
we have jagged objects.
399
00:26:53,182 --> 00:26:56,683
We don't have geometric figures
arranged precisely,
400
00:26:56,685 --> 00:26:59,518
especially on a gigantic
planetary scale.
401
00:26:59,520 --> 00:27:01,354
However, there's some theories.
402
00:27:01,356 --> 00:27:03,856
If I take a bucket of water
or a bathtub
403
00:27:03,858 --> 00:27:05,391
and simply vibrate it,
404
00:27:05,393 --> 00:27:07,427
I get waves, waves that travel.
405
00:27:07,429 --> 00:27:09,729
But there's another kind
of wave.
406
00:27:09,731 --> 00:27:10,997
You have traveling waves,
407
00:27:10,999 --> 00:27:12,832
but then you have
stationary waves.
408
00:27:12,834 --> 00:27:16,136
Inside a bucket of water,
you can get resonances.
409
00:27:16,138 --> 00:27:17,805
Water pulsates like this.
410
00:27:17,807 --> 00:27:21,875
And you can also get them
to pulsate in a circle like this
411
00:27:21,877 --> 00:27:23,810
to create regular patterns.
412
00:27:23,812 --> 00:27:25,845
These are called
stationary waves,
413
00:27:25,847 --> 00:27:27,147
and we think
414
00:27:27,149 --> 00:27:29,382
that this mysterious
hexagonal pattern on Saturn
415
00:27:29,384 --> 00:27:32,719
is a hexagonal standing wave.
416
00:27:36,823 --> 00:27:40,159
The megastorm
at Saturn's north pole
417
00:27:40,161 --> 00:27:43,162
is a wind that travels
at hurricane speed,
418
00:27:43,164 --> 00:27:45,765
cornering sharply six times
419
00:27:45,767 --> 00:27:50,303
as it races 'round the planet.
420
00:27:50,305 --> 00:27:53,473
The central clearing is so big,
421
00:27:53,475 --> 00:27:57,110
you could fit
four Earths inside.
422
00:27:57,112 --> 00:28:01,181
What lies beneath its surface
is a mystery.
423
00:28:05,753 --> 00:28:08,555
As Saturn warms
from spring to summer,
424
00:28:08,557 --> 00:28:11,324
another world comes alive, too.
425
00:28:11,326 --> 00:28:18,198
One of Saturn's moons, Titan,
is warming up.
426
00:28:18,200 --> 00:28:22,269
And with the warmth
come the storms.
427
00:28:23,838 --> 00:28:26,439
One of the most interesting
moons in our solar system
428
00:28:26,441 --> 00:28:27,574
is Titan.
429
00:28:27,576 --> 00:28:29,876
It's straight
out of science fiction.
430
00:28:29,878 --> 00:28:34,413
It's an object with yellow skies
and methane clouds
431
00:28:34,415 --> 00:28:36,449
that is truly remarkable.
432
00:28:36,451 --> 00:28:39,852
NASA's Cassini probe
433
00:28:39,854 --> 00:28:44,489
reveals Titan
in unprecedented detail...
434
00:28:44,491 --> 00:28:48,093
a thick, dense atmosphere,
435
00:28:48,095 --> 00:28:50,295
vast mountain ranges,
436
00:28:50,297 --> 00:28:54,066
lakes of liquid methane.
437
00:28:54,068 --> 00:28:57,303
And this --
438
00:28:57,305 --> 00:29:01,807
an arrow-shaped band
of white methane clouds
439
00:29:01,809 --> 00:29:03,976
moving over its surface.
440
00:29:07,180 --> 00:29:11,350
When the clouds drifted
over a dusty, open plain,
441
00:29:11,352 --> 00:29:13,619
seen here as a dark patch,
442
00:29:13,621 --> 00:29:19,525
the dark patch of ground
beneath the clouds grew larger.
443
00:29:19,527 --> 00:29:22,995
Scientists believe
444
00:29:22,997 --> 00:29:27,467
liquid methane
drenched the surface.
445
00:29:27,469 --> 00:29:31,738
A spring rainstorm, Titan style.
446
00:29:35,043 --> 00:29:36,777
Rain on Titan, if it exists,
447
00:29:36,779 --> 00:29:40,081
would be very different
from rain on the planet Earth.
448
00:29:40,083 --> 00:29:43,817
First of all, the gravitational
field is very weak,
449
00:29:43,819 --> 00:29:45,920
so you would actually see
raindrops falling
450
00:29:45,922 --> 00:29:47,655
very slowly at you.
451
00:29:47,657 --> 00:29:51,058
Also, the size of these droplets
could be much larger.
452
00:29:51,060 --> 00:29:53,861
But don't get caught
in a rainstorm on Titan.
453
00:29:53,863 --> 00:29:55,863
Those droplets are awfully cold.
454
00:29:55,865 --> 00:30:00,001
Titan's methane monsoon
455
00:30:00,003 --> 00:30:03,270
sweeps across the moon.
456
00:30:03,272 --> 00:30:08,876
Weak gravity creates ultra-cold,
hazelnut-sized raindrops.
457
00:30:08,878 --> 00:30:13,047
An alien world
with truly alien weather.
458
00:30:15,851 --> 00:30:19,487
These slow drops
have carved valleys and lakes
459
00:30:19,489 --> 00:30:22,424
much like ours on Earth,
460
00:30:22,426 --> 00:30:25,060
a slow-motion megastorm.
461
00:30:29,733 --> 00:30:33,402
But fly even farther out
through the solar system,
462
00:30:33,404 --> 00:30:36,873
and you find storms
that are altogether faster.
463
00:30:38,776 --> 00:30:43,080
This is super-chilled Neptune.
464
00:30:43,082 --> 00:30:49,386
The temperature never gets
above 300 degrees below zero.
465
00:30:49,388 --> 00:30:53,391
Neptune is one
of these giant planets.
466
00:30:53,393 --> 00:30:56,227
It's much larger than the Earth
and has a very thick atmosphere.
467
00:30:56,229 --> 00:30:58,730
It's about 2 billion miles out
from the Sun.
468
00:30:58,732 --> 00:31:00,265
So, you really might expect,
469
00:31:00,267 --> 00:31:02,267
since it's that far
from the Sun,
470
00:31:02,269 --> 00:31:04,569
it would be very cold
and not have very much weather.
471
00:31:04,571 --> 00:31:06,904
But in fact,
Neptune is very dynamic.
472
00:31:06,906 --> 00:31:09,173
It's got tremendous
weather patterns.
473
00:31:09,175 --> 00:31:13,010
Despite its incredible
distance from Earth,
474
00:31:13,012 --> 00:31:14,845
astronomers can get close
475
00:31:14,847 --> 00:31:18,915
to Neptune's
turbulent atmosphere...
476
00:31:18,917 --> 00:31:23,052
with a little help from this.
477
00:31:23,054 --> 00:31:26,189
The Keck Observatory,
478
00:31:26,191 --> 00:31:32,396
14,000 feet up on the summit
of Mauna Kea in Hawaii.
479
00:31:32,398 --> 00:31:36,467
It sits above Earth's clouds
and pollution.
480
00:31:39,104 --> 00:31:42,506
The telescopes are so powerful
481
00:31:42,508 --> 00:31:46,243
they could see a candle
on the Moon.
482
00:31:50,782 --> 00:31:55,553
Neptune at first
appears featureless.
483
00:31:55,555 --> 00:32:01,058
But a closer look reveals
white, high-altitude clouds
484
00:32:01,060 --> 00:32:04,028
in the upper atmosphere.
485
00:32:04,030 --> 00:32:09,600
It's a perfect opportunity
to track wind speed.
486
00:32:09,602 --> 00:32:11,836
Measuring the time and distance
487
00:32:11,838 --> 00:32:13,904
the clouds take
between two points
488
00:32:13,906 --> 00:32:16,707
allows scientists
to clock their speed.
489
00:32:21,012 --> 00:32:24,381
The Keck telescope
swings towards Neptune.
490
00:32:24,383 --> 00:32:27,985
A series of shots
track the white clouds
491
00:32:27,987 --> 00:32:31,489
as they move around the planet.
492
00:32:31,491 --> 00:32:34,459
So, here we can take
several photographs
493
00:32:34,461 --> 00:32:38,563
that show the positions
of clouds apparently changing.
494
00:32:38,565 --> 00:32:41,100
You can measure the position
at one moment to be there
495
00:32:41,102 --> 00:32:43,001
and at another time
a few hours later
496
00:32:43,003 --> 00:32:44,303
to be in a different place.
497
00:32:44,305 --> 00:32:46,504
Now, most of that change
in position
498
00:32:46,506 --> 00:32:49,307
is due to the rotation
of the planet as a whole.
499
00:32:49,309 --> 00:32:51,809
However, if you know
the rotation rate
500
00:32:51,811 --> 00:32:53,244
and subtract that out,
501
00:32:53,246 --> 00:32:55,779
that gives you
the motion of the clouds
502
00:32:55,781 --> 00:32:57,014
relative to the planet.
503
00:32:57,016 --> 00:32:58,548
That tells you the wind speed.
504
00:32:58,550 --> 00:33:02,419
The results are shocking.
505
00:33:02,421 --> 00:33:04,487
We're seeing
wind speeds on Neptune
506
00:33:04,489 --> 00:33:07,557
of many hundreds
of miles per hour
507
00:33:07,559 --> 00:33:10,995
up to 1,200
or even 1,260 miles per hour
508
00:33:10,997 --> 00:33:13,498
for the very fastest clouds.
509
00:33:13,500 --> 00:33:15,800
That's really phenomenal.
510
00:33:15,802 --> 00:33:21,407
Neptune has the fastest winds
in the solar system.
511
00:33:24,211 --> 00:33:25,711
So, what's driving this?
512
00:33:25,713 --> 00:33:29,381
You need energy to make weather.
Where's that energy coming from?
513
00:33:29,383 --> 00:33:31,750
And it turns out
it's coming from Neptune itself.
514
00:33:31,752 --> 00:33:33,685
It does receive sunlight,
515
00:33:33,687 --> 00:33:37,455
but Neptune actually radiates
away more energy --
516
00:33:37,457 --> 00:33:39,524
a lot more energy
than it gets from the Sun,
517
00:33:39,526 --> 00:33:42,026
which means
the interior is very hot.
518
00:33:42,028 --> 00:33:45,296
Probably it means there's
radioactive material in there,
519
00:33:45,298 --> 00:33:46,564
there's leftover heat
520
00:33:46,566 --> 00:33:49,366
from when Neptune formed
4.5 billion years ago
521
00:33:49,368 --> 00:33:51,368
that's very slowly leaking out.
522
00:33:51,370 --> 00:33:54,004
And it's that
that's heating up the air
523
00:33:54,006 --> 00:33:55,772
and driving
all of this circulation
524
00:33:55,774 --> 00:33:58,008
and all of this crazy weather
that Neptune has.
525
00:33:58,010 --> 00:34:03,480
Neptune's storms hit hard.
526
00:34:06,950 --> 00:34:10,219
But the search
for truly extreme weather
527
00:34:10,221 --> 00:34:13,622
takes us out of the solar system
altogether
528
00:34:13,624 --> 00:34:18,059
into uncharted territory.
529
00:34:18,061 --> 00:34:20,662
Out here, there are storms
530
00:34:20,664 --> 00:34:25,833
that make even Neptune's winds
look like a breeze.
531
00:34:25,835 --> 00:34:29,170
Katrina was just a sneeze
532
00:34:29,172 --> 00:34:32,240
compared to the winds we have
on Osiris.
533
00:34:32,242 --> 00:34:35,442
The search for megastorms
534
00:34:35,444 --> 00:34:38,546
leads to alien worlds
535
00:34:38,548 --> 00:34:41,482
whose violence
defies imagination.
536
00:34:56,850 --> 00:35:02,322
Space is full
of stars and planets
537
00:35:02,324 --> 00:35:06,660
where violence and chaos reign.
538
00:35:15,136 --> 00:35:19,039
Astronomers scour the skies
for new worlds.
539
00:35:19,041 --> 00:35:21,775
And the king
of the planet hunters
540
00:35:21,777 --> 00:35:25,278
is Professor Geoff Marcy.
541
00:35:25,280 --> 00:35:26,746
He scans the night sky
542
00:35:26,748 --> 00:35:31,251
seeking new worlds
around distant stars.
543
00:35:34,756 --> 00:35:39,960
Marcy's team
has instruments so sensitive
544
00:35:39,962 --> 00:35:41,862
they can even predict
the weather
545
00:35:41,864 --> 00:35:43,197
on these distant planets.
546
00:35:47,769 --> 00:35:50,671
This is Osiris,
547
00:35:50,673 --> 00:35:55,310
150 light-years from Earth,
548
00:35:55,312 --> 00:36:02,184
a planet from hell
with matching weather.
549
00:36:02,186 --> 00:36:06,622
Earth is 93 million miles
from the Sun.
550
00:36:06,624 --> 00:36:11,294
It orbits the Sun in one year.
551
00:36:11,296 --> 00:36:16,533
But Osiris is just 4 million
miles from its star.
552
00:36:16,535 --> 00:36:21,738
Its year races by
in just 3? days.
553
00:36:21,740 --> 00:36:26,343
When Osiris passes
between us and its star,
554
00:36:26,345 --> 00:36:30,046
starlight briefly shines
through its atmosphere,
555
00:36:30,048 --> 00:36:35,451
giving us a glimpse of
conditions on the alien world.
556
00:36:35,453 --> 00:36:40,924
And they waited until the planet
was in front of the star.
557
00:36:40,926 --> 00:36:43,827
At that moment,
some of the starlight
558
00:36:43,829 --> 00:36:47,430
passed through the atmosphere
of the planet.
559
00:36:47,432 --> 00:36:50,699
They were able to do
essentially a chemical assay,
560
00:36:50,701 --> 00:36:52,301
a chemical assessment
561
00:36:52,303 --> 00:36:56,138
of the composition
of this atmosphere.
562
00:36:58,741 --> 00:37:04,279
Osiris gets blasted
by the intense heat of its star.
563
00:37:04,281 --> 00:37:08,316
Temperatures top 2,000 degrees.
564
00:37:11,121 --> 00:37:13,522
Now, what that means is
565
00:37:13,524 --> 00:37:17,960
that the environment
on that planet is,
566
00:37:17,962 --> 00:37:20,363
well, hideous
for life as we know it.
567
00:37:20,365 --> 00:37:25,402
But even more, the intense heat
causes the gases to expand,
568
00:37:25,404 --> 00:37:30,607
and they have no place to go
but the backside of the planet.
569
00:37:30,609 --> 00:37:33,944
Osiris is tidally locked.
570
00:37:33,946 --> 00:37:38,348
The same side of the planet
always faces the star.
571
00:37:38,350 --> 00:37:42,085
The other looks out into space.
572
00:37:42,087 --> 00:37:44,821
The temperature difference
is immense.
573
00:37:48,960 --> 00:37:51,828
Superheated atmosphere roars
574
00:37:51,830 --> 00:37:54,197
from the bright side
of the planet to the dark
575
00:37:54,199 --> 00:37:59,168
at nearly six times
the speed of sound.
576
00:37:59,170 --> 00:38:00,870
In fact, the winds
577
00:38:00,872 --> 00:38:05,041
will be something like 2,000
or 3,000 miles per hour,
578
00:38:05,043 --> 00:38:07,978
enormous speeds
of these winds --
579
00:38:07,980 --> 00:38:11,248
10 times, 20 times faster
wind speeds
580
00:38:11,250 --> 00:38:13,784
than the strongest hurricanes.
581
00:38:13,786 --> 00:38:16,087
Katrina was just a sneeze
582
00:38:16,089 --> 00:38:19,823
compared to the winds we have
on Osiris.
583
00:38:22,260 --> 00:38:25,996
Osiris is a brutal world,
584
00:38:25,998 --> 00:38:27,865
too hot and too violent
585
00:38:27,867 --> 00:38:30,634
for any kind of life
we could imagine.
586
00:38:38,243 --> 00:38:42,079
But there are
even larger megastorms,
587
00:38:42,081 --> 00:38:45,984
storms on the scale
of whole galaxies.
588
00:38:57,696 --> 00:39:02,767
And these fast storms may be
the reason any of us are here.
589
00:39:07,138 --> 00:39:11,042
The Hubble Space Telescope
captured this stunning image
590
00:39:11,044 --> 00:39:15,280
of the Galaxy NGC 3079.
591
00:39:18,384 --> 00:39:21,786
At its center, a super wind --
592
00:39:21,788 --> 00:39:26,124
a storm on a truly cosmic scale.
593
00:39:29,062 --> 00:39:34,166
It was triggered by an explosion
from a forming star.
594
00:39:34,168 --> 00:39:39,505
This raging galactic storm
is about 3,000 light-years wide.
595
00:39:39,507 --> 00:39:43,508
It has already raged
for around one million years.
596
00:39:43,510 --> 00:39:48,613
Filaments
of 20 million-degree gas
597
00:39:48,615 --> 00:39:51,283
tower above the spiral galaxy.
598
00:39:53,687 --> 00:39:56,822
This cosmic megastorm
599
00:39:56,824 --> 00:40:01,125
wreaks havoc
within its host galaxy.
600
00:40:01,127 --> 00:40:03,094
We see bubbles and jets
601
00:40:03,096 --> 00:40:06,063
and formations of gas
falling into the galaxy,
602
00:40:06,065 --> 00:40:10,134
colliding with galactic dust.
603
00:40:10,136 --> 00:40:13,637
The gas from
the galactic megastorm
604
00:40:13,639 --> 00:40:17,575
smashes into gas and dust
at the heart of the galaxy
605
00:40:17,577 --> 00:40:22,113
and compresses it
into a swirling mass of matter.
606
00:40:26,352 --> 00:40:29,487
Gravity takes over.
607
00:40:29,489 --> 00:40:31,890
The compressed clouds
of gas and dust
608
00:40:31,892 --> 00:40:34,293
get tighter and tighter.
609
00:40:34,295 --> 00:40:37,863
The center
gets hotter and hotter.
610
00:40:37,865 --> 00:40:39,698
Finally, it ignites.
611
00:40:41,567 --> 00:40:45,938
Powerful winds from the new star
blast into space.
612
00:40:45,940 --> 00:40:50,277
The whole cycle
begins over again,
613
00:40:50,279 --> 00:40:53,813
and a new galactic megastorm
is born.
614
00:40:53,815 --> 00:40:57,918
Around the fledgling stars,
615
00:40:57,920 --> 00:41:02,323
dust and rock come together,
616
00:41:02,325 --> 00:41:04,525
the birth of new worlds
617
00:41:04,527 --> 00:41:09,063
with rocky surfaces
where life could begin.
618
00:41:09,065 --> 00:41:11,465
And perhaps
the formation of life itself
619
00:41:11,467 --> 00:41:12,900
may be determined
620
00:41:12,902 --> 00:41:17,004
by how these gases swirl and
create super-galactic storms.
621
00:41:17,006 --> 00:41:19,740
And if you have
galactic winds churning away,
622
00:41:19,742 --> 00:41:21,909
then that would help
to distribute
623
00:41:21,911 --> 00:41:25,813
the elements necessary for life
throughout the galaxy.
624
00:41:25,815 --> 00:41:28,616
So, galactic storms may,
in some sense,
625
00:41:28,618 --> 00:41:31,719
be one clue to the formation
of life itself.
626
00:41:34,389 --> 00:41:39,293
Galactic megastorms
rage for millions of years.
627
00:41:41,262 --> 00:41:42,696
Billions of years ago,
628
00:41:42,698 --> 00:41:45,198
they may have created
new homes for life
629
00:41:45,200 --> 00:41:48,034
in our Milky Way galaxy.
630
00:41:50,004 --> 00:41:55,274
On every scale, storms are not
just a force of destruction.
631
00:41:55,276 --> 00:41:58,644
They are linked
to creation itself.
632
00:41:58,646 --> 00:42:00,546
The search for life
on other worlds
633
00:42:00,548 --> 00:42:04,016
is also the search for storms.
634
00:42:04,018 --> 00:42:05,918
When you disrupt the status quo,
635
00:42:05,920 --> 00:42:08,186
you open all kinds
of possibilities
636
00:42:08,188 --> 00:42:10,889
for things to reassemble
in different ways.
637
00:42:10,891 --> 00:42:14,726
So, chaos or disruption
is actually an important factor
638
00:42:14,728 --> 00:42:18,096
in the development
of complex systems like life.
639
00:42:18,098 --> 00:42:22,367
A planet that might have
changes of seasons,
640
00:42:22,369 --> 00:42:24,903
vulcanism, intense storms,
641
00:42:24,905 --> 00:42:26,404
some environmental factors
642
00:42:26,406 --> 00:42:29,073
that you might think
could be damaging to life,
643
00:42:29,075 --> 00:42:32,210
in the long run
makes life stronger.
644
00:42:36,381 --> 00:42:38,516
Earth has storms.
645
00:42:38,518 --> 00:42:41,986
Other worlds have megastorms.
646
00:42:41,988 --> 00:42:44,855
Whether it's lightning
on Saturn,
647
00:42:44,857 --> 00:42:48,325
the turbulent atmosphere
of Jupiter,
648
00:42:48,327 --> 00:42:52,764
or blistering temperatures
on Osiris,
649
00:42:52,766 --> 00:42:57,768
vast, violent,
and deadly megastorms
650
00:42:57,770 --> 00:42:59,876
could also be
the catalyst for life.
651
00:42:59,877 --> 00:43:01,877
== sync, corrected by elderman ==
652
00:43:01,927 --> 00:43:06,477
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