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00:00:02,000 --> 00:00:07,000
Downloaded from
YTS.MX
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00:00:03,589 --> 00:00:05,419
I WAS TAKEN
OUT TO THIS SITE
3
00:00:05,453 --> 00:00:08,284
IN THE MIDDLE OF
THE DESERT.
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00:00:08,000 --> 00:00:13,000
Official YIFY movies site:
YTS.MX
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00:00:08,318 --> 00:00:10,079
I HAD NO IDEA WHAT AWAITED ME.
6
00:00:11,597 --> 00:00:15,360
AND THEN I SAW THEM AND
I JUST STARTED CRYING.
7
00:00:16,602 --> 00:00:19,467
THESE TRACKWAYS
IN THE ARABIAN DESERT
8
00:00:19,502 --> 00:00:21,469
ARE FOOTPRINTS IN TIME.
9
00:00:22,919 --> 00:00:25,853
THEY WERE MADE SEVEN
MILLION YEARS AGO
10
00:00:25,887 --> 00:00:28,028
BY PREHISTORIC ELEPHANTS.
11
00:00:29,753 --> 00:00:33,240
THEY TAKE US BACK
TO A BYGONE WORLD
12
00:00:33,274 --> 00:00:35,207
AND ITS VANISHED CREATURES.
13
00:00:37,244 --> 00:00:40,764
HOW DID ELEPHANTS FROM
SO LONG AGO GIVE RISE
14
00:00:40,799 --> 00:00:44,665
TO THE MAGNIFICENT
ANIMALS WE KNOW TODAY?
15
00:00:44,699 --> 00:00:48,496
HOW DID ANY OF THE ANIMALS
IN THIS AFRICAN LANDSCAPE
16
00:00:48,531 --> 00:00:50,360
BECOME WHAT THEY ARE?
17
00:00:51,120 --> 00:00:53,846
FOR GENERATIONS,
IT WAS A MYSTERY.
18
00:00:54,847 --> 00:00:58,748
NOW SCIENTISTS ARE
REVEALING THE ANSWERS,
19
00:00:58,782 --> 00:01:02,303
PIECING TOGETHER AN EPIC STORY.
20
00:01:02,338 --> 00:01:04,650
THIS FILM UNLOCKS THE EVOLUTION
21
00:01:04,685 --> 00:01:08,827
OF FOUR OF THE WORLD'S
MOST SPECTACULAR CREATURES,
22
00:01:08,861 --> 00:01:12,072
CROCODILES, BIRDS,
23
00:01:13,590 --> 00:01:17,525
WHALES, AND ELEPHANTS.
24
00:01:17,560 --> 00:01:20,287
LIKE EVERY ANIMAL ALIVE TODAY,
25
00:01:20,321 --> 00:01:23,186
THEY HAVE A DEEP TIME HISTORY,
26
00:01:23,221 --> 00:01:26,396
A LINEAGE FULL OF
TWISTS AND TURNS,
27
00:01:26,431 --> 00:01:29,744
SHAPED BY STRANGE
ANCESTORS FROM LONG AGO.
28
00:01:31,091 --> 00:01:34,439
BIZARRE ANCIENT CROCS--
THIS THING WAS BUILT
29
00:01:34,473 --> 00:01:38,236
LIKE A GREYHOUND.
FEATHERED DINOSAURS--
30
00:01:38,270 --> 00:01:39,927
DINOSAURS
NEVER WENT EXTINCT.
31
00:01:39,961 --> 00:01:42,447
IN FACT, BIRDS ARE DINOSAURS.
32
00:01:42,481 --> 00:01:45,657
A WHALE ANCESTOR
THAT LIVED ON LAND--
33
00:01:45,691 --> 00:01:48,970
IT MORE LOOKS
LIKE A DOG WITH A LONG SNOUT.
34
00:01:49,005 --> 00:01:52,664
IT'S A STORY MILLIONS
OF YEARS IN THE MAKING,
35
00:01:52,698 --> 00:01:55,632
OF LOST CREATURES REDISCOVERED,
36
00:01:55,667 --> 00:01:58,635
AND THE SURPRISING
LESSONS OF DEEP TIME.
37
00:02:25,455 --> 00:02:26,318
MADAGASCAR.
38
00:02:28,562 --> 00:02:32,566
250 MILES OFF THE
COAST OF AFRICA.
39
00:02:32,600 --> 00:02:34,878
THIS ISLAND IS A
PERFECT LABORATORY
40
00:02:34,913 --> 00:02:37,709
FOR THE STUDY OF
EVOLUTIONARY CHANGE.
41
00:02:39,676 --> 00:02:42,369
ISOLATED HERE FOR
MILLIONS OF YEARS,
42
00:02:42,403 --> 00:02:45,544
SPECIES HAVE TRANSFORMED
IN UNIQUE WAYS.
43
00:02:47,374 --> 00:02:49,824
SCIENTISTS HAVE LONG
STUDIED THE EVOLUTION
44
00:02:49,859 --> 00:02:53,759
OF THE ISLAND'S CHAMELEONS,
BATS, AND LEMURS.
45
00:02:53,794 --> 00:02:57,487
NOW THE SEARCH IS ON
FOR THE ANCIENT HISTORY
46
00:02:57,522 --> 00:03:00,525
OF ONE OF EARTH'S
STRANGEST ANIMALS--
47
00:03:00,559 --> 00:03:05,461
THE CROCODILE.
48
00:03:15,850 --> 00:03:17,783
IN FLOODED UNDERGROUND CAVES,
49
00:03:17,818 --> 00:03:20,027
RESEARCHERS ARE
LOOKING FOR THE REMAINS
50
00:03:20,061 --> 00:03:22,443
OF AN EXTINCT CROC SPECIES.
51
00:03:24,376 --> 00:03:27,621
IT MAY HAVE DISAPPEARED
JUST 2,000 YEARS AGO,
52
00:03:27,655 --> 00:03:30,589
A RECENT TWIST IN
THE STORY OF CROCS.
53
00:03:31,521 --> 00:03:33,696
SOME PEOPLE SEE
CROCODILES AS THIS ANIMAL
54
00:03:33,730 --> 00:03:35,456
THAT'S UNCHANGING THROUGH TIME.
55
00:03:35,491 --> 00:03:37,803
AND, ACTUALLY, WE KNOW
NOW THAT THAT'S NOT TRUE,
56
00:03:37,838 --> 00:03:39,253
BUT THEY LOOK LIKE IT.
57
00:03:40,668 --> 00:03:41,738
COLD-BLOODED,
58
00:03:44,120 --> 00:03:45,259
FEROCIOUS,
59
00:03:48,814 --> 00:03:50,368
BUT STRANGELY BEAUTIFUL.
60
00:03:51,300 --> 00:03:55,683
THE 14 LIVING CROCODILE
SPECIES ARE ALL VERY SIMILAR.
61
00:03:57,651 --> 00:04:00,516
MOST OF THE LIVING
SPECIES OF CROCODILE
62
00:04:00,550 --> 00:04:02,656
ARE REALLY, REALLY
HARD TO TELL APART,
63
00:04:02,690 --> 00:04:03,933
UNLESS YOU'RE
SOMEBODY WHO SPENDS
64
00:04:03,967 --> 00:04:06,729
ALL YOUR TIME THINKING
ABOUT CROCODILES LIKE ME.
65
00:04:10,146 --> 00:04:13,563
THEY ALL HAVE THE
SAME REPTILIAN BODY PLAN,
66
00:04:17,429 --> 00:04:18,637
LOW TO THE GROUND
67
00:04:18,672 --> 00:04:22,020
AND ARMORED FROM HEAD
TO TOE IN THICK SCALES.
68
00:04:24,850 --> 00:04:26,990
THEY SEEM LIKE LIVING FOSSILS,
69
00:04:27,888 --> 00:04:31,271
SOME HANGOVER FROM THE
AGE OF THE DINOSAURS.
70
00:04:33,480 --> 00:04:34,377
BUT ARE THEY?
71
00:04:35,965 --> 00:04:39,279
IS THIS REALLY AN
ANIMAL FROZEN IN TIME?
72
00:04:42,730 --> 00:04:45,561
PERHAPS THE MYSTERIOUS
SPECIES IN THE CAVE
73
00:04:45,595 --> 00:04:49,668
WILL PROVIDE SOME ANSWERS ABOUT
RECENT CROCODILE EVOLUTION.
74
00:04:51,739 --> 00:04:54,397
SO, THERE'S THIS
CROCODILE THAT EXISTED
75
00:04:54,432 --> 00:04:58,021
ON THE ISLAND OF MADAGASCAR
UNTIL RELATIVELY RECENTLY
76
00:04:58,056 --> 00:05:01,093
AND IT DISAPPEARS
ABOUT THE SAME TIME
77
00:05:01,128 --> 00:05:01,991
THAT HUMANS GOT HERE,
78
00:05:02,025 --> 00:05:03,786
AND THAT CROCODILE WAS CALLED
79
00:05:03,820 --> 00:05:06,754
THE HORNED CROCODILE
OF MADAGASCAR.
80
00:05:06,789 --> 00:05:10,448
AND SO, ONE OF THE BIG QUESTIONS
IS WHAT WAS THAT CROCODILE?
81
00:05:10,482 --> 00:05:11,932
WHO WERE ITS RELATIVES?
82
00:05:11,966 --> 00:05:13,209
AND, WHAT HAPPENED TO IT?
83
00:05:13,243 --> 00:05:15,004
IT'S ONE OF THE
BIGGEST MYSTERIES.
84
00:05:20,665 --> 00:05:24,358
TODAY, THERE IS ONLY
ONE SPECIES ON MADAGASCAR,
85
00:05:26,636 --> 00:05:28,914
THE FAMOUS NILE CROCODILE,
86
00:05:32,780 --> 00:05:35,714
ONE OF THE FIERCEST
OF AFRICA'S PREDATORS.
87
00:05:46,518 --> 00:05:50,453
SCIENTISTS THINK IT SQUEEZED
OUT THE SMALLER HORNED CROC,
88
00:05:51,454 --> 00:05:53,456
BUT THERE'S A LOT
THEY DON'T KNOW.
89
00:05:56,148 --> 00:05:59,082
THERE MAY BE ANSWERS
IN THE FLOODED CAVES.
90
00:06:06,055 --> 00:06:09,783
I KNEW FROM SPEAKING
WITH SOME OTHER PEOPLE
91
00:06:09,817 --> 00:06:14,822
THAT THERE WERE SUPPOSEDLY
CROCODILE SKULLS IN THIS CAVE
92
00:06:15,236 --> 00:06:19,965
OF THIS SPECIES THAT NO ONE HAS
SEEN FOR AT LEAST 200 YEARS,
93
00:06:20,000 --> 00:06:22,830
BUT MORE LIKELY
A THOUSAND YEARS.
94
00:06:26,800 --> 00:06:29,596
A HALF-HOUR
IN THEY SEE IT,
95
00:06:32,184 --> 00:06:33,047
A SKULL.
96
00:06:48,166 --> 00:06:50,133
-SO EXCITED.
-A SKULL?
97
00:06:50,168 --> 00:06:51,928
YEAH. LOOK AT THAT.
98
00:06:51,963 --> 00:06:54,966
IT'S BEAUTIFUL.
IT LOOKS PERFECT.
99
00:06:59,591 --> 00:07:03,112
THIS IS A SKULL
OF THE EXTINCT
100
00:07:03,146 --> 00:07:05,252
HORNED CROCODILE OF MADAGASCAR.
101
00:07:05,286 --> 00:07:07,875
AND WHEN RESEARCHERS
FIRST STARTED COMING
102
00:07:07,910 --> 00:07:09,705
TO MADAGASCAR FROM EUROPE,
103
00:07:09,739 --> 00:07:12,121
THEY SAW THESE CROCODILE SKULLS
104
00:07:12,155 --> 00:07:14,226
AND THEY WEREN'T SURE
EXACTLY WHAT THEY WERE.
105
00:07:14,261 --> 00:07:17,264
THEY DIDN'T LOOK EXACTLY
LIKE NILE CROCODILES.
106
00:07:17,298 --> 00:07:19,473
THEY REALIZED IT WAS
A SEPARATE SPECIES.
107
00:07:20,129 --> 00:07:21,682
IF EVON'S LUCKY,
108
00:07:21,717 --> 00:07:24,582
SHE'LL BE ABLE TO
EXTRACT ITS DNA
109
00:07:24,616 --> 00:07:26,894
AND LEARN WHERE THE
HORNED CROC FITS
110
00:07:26,929 --> 00:07:29,759
INTO THE STORY OF
CROCODILE EVOLUTION.
111
00:07:33,038 --> 00:07:35,282
TO MEET THE VERY FIRST CROCS,
112
00:07:35,316 --> 00:07:38,803
WE MUST TRACE ONE BRANCH
OF THE VAST TREE OF LIFE
113
00:07:38,837 --> 00:07:41,184
FAR BACK IN DEEP TIME,
114
00:07:41,219 --> 00:07:46,224
230-MILLION YEARS INTO
THE GEOLOGIC PERIOD
115
00:07:46,535 --> 00:07:48,191
CALLED THE TRIASSIC.
116
00:07:49,296 --> 00:07:53,196
IT'S HARD TO IMAGINE SUCH
A VAST EXPANSE OF TIME.
117
00:07:54,991 --> 00:07:58,063
IF YOU LOOK, FOR INSTANCE,
AT YOUR HISTORICAL TIME,
118
00:07:58,098 --> 00:08:00,272
YOU CAN THINK BACK
TO YOUR GRANDPARENTS
119
00:08:00,307 --> 00:08:03,966
AND THAT TIME FRAME THAT PEOPLE
ARE STILL COMFORTABLE WITH.
120
00:08:04,000 --> 00:08:04,863
BUT YOU GO FURTHER BACK,
121
00:08:04,898 --> 00:08:07,245
GO SAY BACK THOUSANDS OF YEARS
122
00:08:07,279 --> 00:08:10,869
WHEN MUCH OF NORTH AMERICA
WAS COVERED BY ICE.
123
00:08:10,904 --> 00:08:12,699
A VERY DIFFERENT WORLD.
124
00:08:12,733 --> 00:08:14,355
BUT GO FURTHER BACK YET.
125
00:08:14,390 --> 00:08:17,186
GO BACK TO A HUNDRED
MILLION YEARS
126
00:08:17,220 --> 00:08:20,258
AND THIS WORLD WOULD HAVE
BEEN ENTIRELY UNRECOGNIZABLE.
127
00:08:20,292 --> 00:08:22,916
WOULD HAVE BEEN LIKE
GOING TO ANOTHER PLANET
128
00:08:22,950 --> 00:08:25,056
AND SEEING LIFE FORMS THAT WERE,
129
00:08:25,090 --> 00:08:28,646
FOR THE MOST PART, UTTERLY
ALIEN TO OUR EXPERIENCE
130
00:08:28,680 --> 00:08:30,958
AND THIS IS REALLY
DIFFICULT TO GRASP.
131
00:08:32,650 --> 00:08:34,203
THERE IS
LITTLE ABOUT THE PLANET
132
00:08:34,237 --> 00:08:36,895
OF THE TRIASSIC WE
WOULD RECOGNIZE.
133
00:08:39,380 --> 00:08:43,108
THE CONTINENTS WE KNOW
TODAY HAD NOT YET FORMED.
134
00:08:44,075 --> 00:08:47,354
THEY WERE ALL CONTAINED
IN ONE HUGE LAND MASS
135
00:08:47,388 --> 00:08:50,840
SURROUNDED BY WATER, PANGAEA.
136
00:08:54,085 --> 00:08:57,088
IT WAS HERE, ALONG
WITH THE DINOSAURS,
137
00:08:57,122 --> 00:08:59,262
THAT THE FIRST CROCS EVOLVED.
138
00:09:01,126 --> 00:09:02,472
IN THE BEGINNING,
139
00:09:02,507 --> 00:09:06,304
THEY WERE EVEN MORE
SUCCESSFUL THAN THE DINOSAURS,
140
00:09:06,338 --> 00:09:10,170
AND TO OUR EYES, THEY
LOOK TOTALLY BIZARRE.
141
00:09:10,964 --> 00:09:13,104
WELL THE TRIASSIC
WAS IN MANY WAYS,
142
00:09:13,138 --> 00:09:15,002
ACTUALLY THE AGE OF CROCODILES,
143
00:09:15,037 --> 00:09:17,695
AND IN ANY TRIASSIC LANDSCAPE,
144
00:09:17,729 --> 00:09:20,145
YOU WOULD HAVE SEEN
THIS VAST DIVERSITY
145
00:09:20,180 --> 00:09:22,941
OF CROCODILE RELATIVES
WITH MANY BODY FORMS.
146
00:09:24,184 --> 00:09:27,118
ANJAN BHULLAR HAS
BEEN UNEARTHING THE BONES
147
00:09:27,152 --> 00:09:30,224
OF THE VERY FIRST
CROCODILE RELATIVES.
148
00:09:30,259 --> 00:09:32,261
TWO OF THEM WERE FOUND TOGETHER
149
00:09:32,295 --> 00:09:35,609
NEAR SOME SANDSTONE
CLIFFS IN SOUTHERN UTAH.
150
00:09:38,819 --> 00:09:42,374
WELL THESE ARE TWO OF
THE MOST EXTRAORDINARY SKELETONS
151
00:09:42,409 --> 00:09:45,308
FROM THE CROCODILE LINE
THAT HAVE EVER BEEN FOUND.
152
00:09:46,516 --> 00:09:50,728
THIS LARGE ANIMAL HERE IS
SOMETHING CALLED A POPOSAUR.
153
00:09:50,762 --> 00:09:54,076
AND IT'S THE ONLY COMPLETE
SKELETON OF ONE OF THESE ANIMALS
154
00:09:54,110 --> 00:09:55,387
THAT'S EVER BEEN FOUND.
155
00:09:55,422 --> 00:09:58,908
ALL OF THE SUBTLE FEATURES
ON IT, I MEAN IT'S JUST,
156
00:09:58,943 --> 00:10:00,358
IT'S THE FIND OF A LIFETIME.
157
00:10:01,601 --> 00:10:05,708
THESE ANIMALS SHOW US
WHAT CROCODILES WERE LIKE
158
00:10:05,743 --> 00:10:09,367
AT THE BEGINNING
OF THEIR EVOLUTION
159
00:10:09,401 --> 00:10:11,403
AND THEY'RE VERY,
VERY DIFFERENT.
160
00:10:12,266 --> 00:10:14,406
THE EXTRAORDINARY
THING ABOUT THIS ANIMAL
161
00:10:14,441 --> 00:10:17,927
IS THAT IT WAS REALLY
TRYING TO BE A DINOSAUR
162
00:10:17,962 --> 00:10:19,964
BEFORE DINOSAURS WERE DOMINANT,
163
00:10:19,998 --> 00:10:23,036
IN THAT IT WAS ACTUALLY
WALKING AROUND ON TWO LEGS.
164
00:10:23,070 --> 00:10:26,280
YOU SEE HOW LARGE
AND HOW HEAVILY BUILT
165
00:10:26,315 --> 00:10:27,972
THE LEGS OF THIS ANIMAL ARE
166
00:10:28,006 --> 00:10:30,457
COMPARED TO THESE
TINY LITTLE ARMS.
167
00:10:30,491 --> 00:10:32,217
AND SO, THIS ANIMAL
COULDN'T REST
168
00:10:32,252 --> 00:10:33,909
ANY OF ITS WEIGHT ON ITS ARMS.
169
00:10:36,877 --> 00:10:38,430
POPOSAURUS
WAS A FIERCE,
170
00:10:38,465 --> 00:10:40,916
FAST-MOVING LAND PREDATOR,
171
00:10:40,950 --> 00:10:43,850
ACTING FOR ALL THE
WORLD LIKE A DINOSAUR.
172
00:10:46,300 --> 00:10:49,165
AND IT WASN'T THE ONLY
STRANGE TRIASSIC CROC
173
00:10:49,200 --> 00:10:50,822
TO BE FOUND IN UTAH.
174
00:10:51,720 --> 00:10:54,861
IN FACT, THE POPOSAUR,
THIS LARGE SKELETON,
175
00:10:54,895 --> 00:10:56,276
WAS THE FIRST THING WE FOUND,
176
00:10:56,310 --> 00:10:58,174
AND WE DUG OUT
THIS BIG SKELETON.
177
00:10:58,209 --> 00:11:02,800
THEN RIGHT UNDERNEATH
IT WAS A TINY FOOT.
178
00:11:02,834 --> 00:11:06,458
AND UNDERNEATH THAT FOOT
WAS THIS ANIMAL HERE,
179
00:11:06,493 --> 00:11:10,048
WHICH IS THE ONLY
COMPLETE SPECIMEN
180
00:11:10,083 --> 00:11:13,258
OF WHAT WE CALL A SPHENOSUCHIAN
GRADE STEM CROCODILE
181
00:11:13,293 --> 00:11:14,674
THAT'S EVER BEEN FOUND.
182
00:11:15,675 --> 00:11:18,332
THEY CALLED THE
SPHENOSUCHIAN, LITTLE FOOT.
183
00:11:19,092 --> 00:11:21,922
IT WAS EVEN STRANGER
THAN POPOSAURUS.
184
00:11:22,923 --> 00:11:25,374
AND SO, THE POPOSAUR IS
SOMETHING LIKE MOUNTAIN LION,
185
00:11:25,408 --> 00:11:29,171
WHEREAS THE SPHENOSUCHIAN,
YOU LOOK AT THIS ANIMAL,
186
00:11:29,205 --> 00:11:32,070
AND IT'S GOT A
SLENDER LITTLE BODY,
187
00:11:32,105 --> 00:11:34,245
IT'S GOT EXTRAORDINARILY
LONG LEGS.
188
00:11:34,279 --> 00:11:35,971
EXTRAORDINARILY LONG ARMS,
189
00:11:36,005 --> 00:11:37,593
AND THESE ARMS WERE
TAKING ITS WEIGHT,
190
00:11:37,627 --> 00:11:39,422
UNLIKE THOSE OF THE POPOSAUR.
191
00:11:39,457 --> 00:11:42,563
AND SO, THIS THING WAS BUILT
ALMOST LIKE A GREYHOUND
192
00:11:42,598 --> 00:11:45,152
WITH A HEAVY HEAD
AND A LONG TAIL.
193
00:11:45,187 --> 00:11:48,017
IT WAS AN ANIMAL THAT WAS
UTTERLY BUILT FOR SPEED.
194
00:11:53,091 --> 00:11:55,922
THE STRANGE
CREATURES OF THE TRIASSIC
195
00:11:55,956 --> 00:11:58,441
WERE PART OF THE
FIRST GREAT FLOWERING
196
00:11:58,476 --> 00:12:01,030
OF THE CROCODILE FAMILY TREE.
197
00:12:01,065 --> 00:12:03,446
BUT 200 MILLION YEARS AGO,
198
00:12:03,481 --> 00:12:06,035
MUCH OF THAT TREE WAS CUT BACK
199
00:12:06,070 --> 00:12:09,314
WHEN A MASS EXTINCTION
200
00:12:09,349 --> 00:12:11,178
WIPED OUT THE VAST MAJORITY
201
00:12:11,213 --> 00:12:13,422
OF THE ANIMALS OF LAND AND SEA.
202
00:12:16,908 --> 00:12:21,016
AS THE SUPERCONTINENT
PANGEA BEGAN TO BREAK UP,
203
00:12:21,050 --> 00:12:24,398
VOLCANOES PUMPED VAST
AMOUNTS OF CARBON DIOXIDE
204
00:12:24,433 --> 00:12:28,161
INTO THE AIR,
ACIDIFYING THE OCEANS.
205
00:12:28,195 --> 00:12:33,200
THE PLANET WARMED AND
HABITATS WERE TRANSFORMED.
206
00:12:33,580 --> 00:12:36,894
MOST OF THE TRIASSIC
CROCODILE RELATIVES,
207
00:12:36,928 --> 00:12:40,794
INCLUDING POPOSAURUS AND
LITTLE FOOT, DIED OUT.
208
00:12:41,830 --> 00:12:44,315
EXTINCTIONS ARE
OF GREAT INTEREST
209
00:12:44,349 --> 00:12:45,695
TO EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGISTS,
210
00:12:45,730 --> 00:12:50,045
BECAUSE THEY BASICALLY
RESET THE EVOLUTIONARY GAME.
211
00:12:50,873 --> 00:12:53,565
EVERY ONCE IN A WHILE,
DURING THE HISTORY OF LIFE
212
00:12:53,600 --> 00:12:57,604
THERE HAVE BEEN CATASTROPHIC
EVENTS OF SUCH MAGNITUDE
213
00:12:57,638 --> 00:13:01,677
THAT THOUSANDS OR MILLIONS
OF SPECIES WERE WIPED OUT
214
00:13:01,711 --> 00:13:05,232
IN WHAT BASICALLY IN DEEP
TIME IS A SINGLE MOMENT.
215
00:13:05,267 --> 00:13:06,406
THERE HAVE BEEN FIVE
216
00:13:06,440 --> 00:13:09,512
MAJOR EXTINCTIONS
IN EARTH'S HISTORY.
217
00:13:09,547 --> 00:13:11,618
THROUGH THE LENS OF DEEP TIME,
218
00:13:11,652 --> 00:13:15,518
WE CAN SEE THEY CAUSED
PROFOUND DESTRUCTION,
219
00:13:15,553 --> 00:13:19,212
AND CHANGED THE HISTORY
OF LIFE ON EARTH.
220
00:13:21,352 --> 00:13:24,976
THE MASS EXTINCTION THAT
ENDED THE TRIASSIC PERIOD
221
00:13:25,011 --> 00:13:28,946
USHERED IN A NEW CHAPTER
IN THE STORY OF CROCS.
222
00:13:28,980 --> 00:13:31,949
IN THE JURASSIC AND
CRETACEOUS PERIODS,
223
00:13:31,983 --> 00:13:34,330
CROCS FLOURISHED AGAIN,
224
00:13:34,365 --> 00:13:37,851
BUT IN NEW AND
EVEN STRANGER WAYS.
225
00:13:40,267 --> 00:13:44,099
A RECORD OF THOSE WONDROUS
CREATURES IS PRESERVED
226
00:13:44,133 --> 00:13:48,206
IN ONE OF THE MOST SPECTACULAR
LANDSCAPES ON EARTH,
227
00:13:48,241 --> 00:13:49,104
PATAGONIA.
228
00:13:53,522 --> 00:13:56,628
MANY GROUPS DIVERSIFIED
IN THE JURASSIC.
229
00:13:56,663 --> 00:14:00,149
DINOSAURS WERE CERTAINLY
THE MOST CONSPICUOUS,
230
00:14:00,184 --> 00:14:01,254
BECAUSE THEY WERE BIG,
231
00:14:01,288 --> 00:14:04,050
BUT OTHER GROUPS
BEGAN TO DIVERSIFY
232
00:14:04,084 --> 00:14:05,741
IN A VERY, VERY IMPRESSIVE WAY,
233
00:14:05,775 --> 00:14:07,639
AND CROCS WERE ONE OF THEM.
234
00:14:09,296 --> 00:14:11,022
FOR THE
DURATION OF THE JURASSIC
235
00:14:11,057 --> 00:14:15,647
AND CRETACEOUS PERIODS,
ALMOST 150 MILLION YEARS,
236
00:14:15,682 --> 00:14:18,892
CROCS VIED WITH
DINOSAURS FOR DOMINANCE.
237
00:14:20,721 --> 00:14:23,552
THEY STOPPED BEING
ONLY THE LAND ANIMALS
238
00:14:23,586 --> 00:14:25,554
THEY WERE IN THE TRIASSIC
239
00:14:25,588 --> 00:14:29,316
AND EXPERIMENTED WITH
RADICALLY NEW WAYS OF BEING.
240
00:14:30,524 --> 00:14:34,287
YOU START SEEING
ANIMALS LIKE DAKOSAURUS
241
00:14:34,321 --> 00:14:36,703
IS THE SWIMMING MARINE CROC
242
00:14:36,737 --> 00:14:41,087
THAT ADAPTED THEIR FORELIMBS
INTO PADDLE-LIKE FLIPPERS.
243
00:14:41,121 --> 00:14:44,573
AND THEN YOU HAVE
FRESHWATER GIGANTIC CROCS
244
00:14:44,607 --> 00:14:48,163
LIKE SARCOSUCHUS THAT'S
ABOUT 12 METER LONG,
245
00:14:48,197 --> 00:14:50,303
THAT WAS EATING DINOSAURS.
246
00:14:50,337 --> 00:14:54,410
AND THEN YOU HAVE HERBIVOROUS
CROCS LIKE NOTOSUCHIANS.
247
00:14:54,445 --> 00:14:55,722
LOOK AT THIS ANIMAL.
248
00:14:55,756 --> 00:14:58,656
IT REALLY LOOKS
NOTHING LIKE A CROC
249
00:14:58,690 --> 00:15:01,555
IT HAS A SHORT SNOUT, VERY HIGH,
250
00:15:01,590 --> 00:15:04,386
THE EYE SOCKETS ARE
POINTING TO THE SIDES,
251
00:15:04,420 --> 00:15:07,596
AND THE CRAZY,
CRAZY THING IS THAT
252
00:15:07,630 --> 00:15:11,358
IT MOVED THE LOWER
JAW BACK AND FORTH.
253
00:15:11,393 --> 00:15:14,741
AND THIS WAS A WAY OF THE
UPPER TEETH AND LOWER TEETH
254
00:15:14,775 --> 00:15:17,606
TO SLIDE AGAINST EACH OTHER
255
00:15:17,640 --> 00:15:21,299
AND IN THAT WAY THIS ANIMAL WAS
PROCESSING THE PLANT MATTER.
256
00:15:22,197 --> 00:15:24,302
SO HERE
WAS AN ANCIENT CROC
257
00:15:24,993 --> 00:15:28,099
THAT CHEWED LIKE A GOAT.
258
00:15:31,896 --> 00:15:34,761
DIEGO HAS SPENT MUCH
OF THE LAST 20 YEARS
259
00:15:34,795 --> 00:15:36,694
EXCAVATING ANCIENT CROCS
260
00:15:36,728 --> 00:15:39,524
FROM THE BARREN
OUTCROPS OF PATAGONIA.
261
00:15:42,320 --> 00:15:45,082
BUT BACK WHEN THOSE
CREATURES LIVED,
262
00:15:45,116 --> 00:15:47,981
THE WORLD WAS A VERY
DIFFERENT PLACE.
263
00:15:48,878 --> 00:15:50,604
IT WAS MUCH WARMER PLANET.
264
00:15:50,639 --> 00:15:53,607
THERE WERE NO ICE
CAPS ON THE POLES.
265
00:15:55,368 --> 00:15:57,715
IN THE WARMING
GREENHOUSE WORLD
266
00:15:57,749 --> 00:16:02,754
OF THE JURASSIC AND
CRETACEOUS, CROCS PROSPERED.
267
00:16:02,962 --> 00:16:05,619
THIS WAS THEIR GOLDEN AGE.
268
00:16:06,620 --> 00:16:10,176
THEY BECAME SO DIVERSE
THAT IN SOME PLACES YOU GO,
269
00:16:10,210 --> 00:16:12,109
AND YOU BASICALLY
ONLY FIND CROCS.
270
00:16:12,868 --> 00:16:14,007
SO, WE CAN SEE A REALLY,
271
00:16:14,042 --> 00:16:17,597
REALLY CRAZY DIVERSITY
IN THE CRETACEOUS.
272
00:16:17,631 --> 00:16:20,600
AND THEN ABOUT 66
MILLION YEARS AGO,
273
00:16:21,773 --> 00:16:22,982
IT ALL WENT AWAY.
274
00:16:24,776 --> 00:16:28,263
WHAT HAPPENED TO
THE MANY CRETACEOUS CROCS?
275
00:16:29,574 --> 00:16:31,749
IT SEEMS MOST OF THEM PERISHED
276
00:16:31,783 --> 00:16:34,096
THE SAME WAY AS THE DINOSAURS.
277
00:16:36,581 --> 00:16:40,551
IT WAS LONG REALIZED THAT
AROUND 66 MILLION YEARS AGO
278
00:16:40,585 --> 00:16:43,381
THERE WAS A MAJOR EXTINCTION
OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS
279
00:16:43,416 --> 00:16:45,487
ON LAND AND IN THE OCEANS.
280
00:16:45,521 --> 00:16:49,387
ON LAND THE MOST FAMOUS
CAUSALITY WAS THE DINOSAURS.
281
00:16:57,464 --> 00:16:59,915
SCIENTISTS AGREE
THAT AN ASTEROID STRIKE
282
00:16:59,949 --> 00:17:02,400
BROUGHT ON THE
GLOBAL DEVASTATION,
283
00:17:02,435 --> 00:17:04,230
BUT MANY NOW ARGUE
284
00:17:04,264 --> 00:17:08,268
IT WAS NOT THE ONLY CAUSE
OF THE MASS EXTINCTION.
285
00:17:08,303 --> 00:17:11,651
FROM THE FOSSIL RECORD, THEY
CAN SEE THAT CLIMATE CHANGES
286
00:17:11,685 --> 00:17:15,517
WERE ALREADY PUSHING MANY
SPECIES TO EXTINCTION
287
00:17:15,551 --> 00:17:17,622
BEFORE THE ASTEROID IMPACT.
288
00:17:18,761 --> 00:17:22,179
SO BASICALLY, THIS
IMPACT IS SORT OF THOUGHT
289
00:17:22,213 --> 00:17:24,664
IF NOT THE SOLE CAUSE
OF THE EXTINCTION,
290
00:17:24,698 --> 00:17:28,047
CERTAINLY THE COUP DE GRACE
FOR A GREAT MANY LINEAGES.
291
00:17:30,670 --> 00:17:32,430
ANCIENT
CROCS WERE REDUCED
292
00:17:32,465 --> 00:17:35,675
TO A FRACTION OF WHAT
THEY ONCE HAD BEEN.
293
00:17:36,503 --> 00:17:39,955
SO OUT OF THIS
WONDERFUL DIVERSITY
294
00:17:39,989 --> 00:17:42,785
ONLY A FEW SPECIES
MADE IT THROUGH.
295
00:17:44,373 --> 00:17:46,893
AND THE ONES THAT
ACTUALLY MADE IT THROUGH
296
00:17:46,927 --> 00:17:49,965
WERE VERY PARTICULAR
IN MANY WAYS.
297
00:17:49,999 --> 00:17:52,623
THEY WERE CERTAINLY
ADAPTED TO LIVING
298
00:17:52,657 --> 00:17:54,901
IN THE FRESHWATER ENVIRONMENT.
299
00:17:54,935 --> 00:17:58,836
THEY WERE ADAPTED
TO FEEDING IN WATER.
300
00:17:58,870 --> 00:18:01,977
THEY WERE PREDATORS,
THEY WERE NOT HERBIVORES.
301
00:18:02,011 --> 00:18:03,910
THEY WERE NOT LAND CROCODILES.
302
00:18:03,944 --> 00:18:05,774
THEY WERE NOT MARINE CROCODILES.
303
00:18:05,808 --> 00:18:09,260
SO ONLY A TINY FRACTION OF
THAT DIVERSITY MADE IT THROUGH.
304
00:18:10,848 --> 00:18:12,815
THE CROCODILES
THAT MADE IT THROUGH
305
00:18:12,850 --> 00:18:14,576
WERE THE SHORELINE PREDATORS
306
00:18:14,610 --> 00:18:18,235
THAT LIVED HALF IN
WATER AND HALF ON LAND.
307
00:18:20,616 --> 00:18:22,756
THEIR LOW, TANK-LIKE BODY PLAN
308
00:18:22,791 --> 00:18:25,518
MAY HAVE BEEN ONE SECRET
OF THEIR SURVIVAL.
309
00:18:28,348 --> 00:18:32,007
IT ALLOWS THEM TO LAY
SEMI-SUBMERGED IN THE SHALLOWS
310
00:18:32,041 --> 00:18:35,528
AND AMBUSH THEIR PREY
WITH FEROCIOUS SPEED.
311
00:18:41,189 --> 00:18:43,743
THE SUCCESS OF
THAT LETHAL DESIGN
312
00:18:43,777 --> 00:18:48,541
IS WHY CROCODILES TODAY
ALL SEEM SO SIMILAR.
313
00:18:51,440 --> 00:18:52,890
CROCODILES
HAVE THIS FORM
314
00:18:52,924 --> 00:18:54,754
THAT'S VERY, VERY SUCCESSFUL.
315
00:18:54,788 --> 00:18:57,964
THEY HAVE SORT OF
AN ARMORED BODY PLAN
316
00:18:57,998 --> 00:19:01,450
THAT ALLOWS THEM TO BE
A SUCCESSFUL PREDATOR
317
00:19:01,485 --> 00:19:02,624
IN AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS.
318
00:19:02,658 --> 00:19:04,971
AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS
CAN BE MORE STABLE
319
00:19:05,005 --> 00:19:06,352
THAN OTHER KINDS
OF ENVIRONMENTS,
320
00:19:06,386 --> 00:19:07,629
LIKE TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENTS.
321
00:19:07,663 --> 00:19:09,838
AND SO, IT MAKES SENSE
THAT THEY'VE RETAINED
322
00:19:09,872 --> 00:19:12,047
THIS BODY PLAN FROM DEEP TIME,
323
00:19:12,081 --> 00:19:13,359
FROM THE ANCESTRAL CROCODILIANS
324
00:19:13,393 --> 00:19:16,465
THAT WERE AROUND THE GLOBE
MILLIONS OF YEARS AGO.
325
00:19:17,156 --> 00:19:19,192
IT WORKS REALLY
WELL, WHY CHANGE IT?
326
00:19:21,677 --> 00:19:24,542
OF COURSE,
THAT CLASSIC BODY PLAN
327
00:19:24,577 --> 00:19:26,751
IS NO GUARANTEE OF SURVIVAL.
328
00:19:27,994 --> 00:19:32,861
THE HORNED CROC OF MADAGASCAR
DIED OUT JUST CENTURIES AGO,
329
00:19:32,895 --> 00:19:35,898
LIKELY PUSHED OUT BY
THE GIANT NILE CROC.
330
00:19:41,766 --> 00:19:43,975
RESULTS FROM EVON'S WORK
331
00:19:44,010 --> 00:19:47,289
SUGGEST THE SPECIES ARE
MORE CLOSELY RELATED
332
00:19:47,324 --> 00:19:48,980
THAN ANYBODY REALIZED.
333
00:19:55,504 --> 00:19:58,714
IT'S A GREAT EXAMPLE
OF HOW DNA ANALYSIS
334
00:19:58,749 --> 00:20:01,993
HAS BECOME A VITAL TOOL
FOR PALEONTOLOGISTS.
335
00:20:05,928 --> 00:20:07,896
ONE OF THE
EXCITING THINGS
336
00:20:07,930 --> 00:20:09,829
ABOUT THE NEW TOOL
KIT WE HAVE TODAY,
337
00:20:09,863 --> 00:20:13,315
THE ABILITY TO USE DNA TO
LOOK AT EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY,
338
00:20:13,350 --> 00:20:15,490
IS WE CAN USE IT
AS SORT OF A METRIC
339
00:20:15,524 --> 00:20:17,630
FOR CHANGE OVER
TIME AND LINEAGES.
340
00:20:17,664 --> 00:20:21,047
SO, WITH LIVING SPECIES,
WE CAN TAKE THEIR DNA
341
00:20:21,081 --> 00:20:24,671
AND WE CAN CALCULATE
BACK HOW LONG IT TAKES
342
00:20:24,706 --> 00:20:28,917
TO ACCUMULATE THE NUMBER OF
CHANGES WE SEE IN THE GENOME.
343
00:20:28,951 --> 00:20:30,298
AND WE CAN SAY,
344
00:20:30,332 --> 00:20:34,647
THIS CORRESPONDS TO A SPLIT
THREE MILLION YEARS AGO,
345
00:20:34,681 --> 00:20:37,408
OR SIX MILLION YEARS AGO,
OR 20 MILLION YEARS AGO.
346
00:20:38,513 --> 00:20:42,931
DNA HAS SHOWN THAT
BOTH CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS
347
00:20:42,965 --> 00:20:45,451
ARE DESCENDED FROM
A COMMON ANCESTOR
348
00:20:45,485 --> 00:20:48,350
THAT LIVED 80 MILLION YEARS AGO.
349
00:20:49,972 --> 00:20:51,767
AND THEN,
EVEN MORE RECENTLY,
350
00:20:51,802 --> 00:20:53,252
THIS THING THAT
WE'VE ALWAYS THOUGHT
351
00:20:53,286 --> 00:20:56,807
AS THE SORT OF PRIMORDIAL
CROCODILE, THE NILE CROCODILE,
352
00:20:56,841 --> 00:21:00,949
WE RECENTLY HAVE FOUND
USING MOLECULAR CLOCK DATING
353
00:21:00,983 --> 00:21:03,607
THAT THE NILE CROCODILE
IS JUST A BABY.
354
00:21:03,641 --> 00:21:05,540
IT JUST AROSE PROBABLY WITHIN
355
00:21:05,574 --> 00:21:08,370
THE LAST FOUR TO
SIX MILLION YEARS.
356
00:21:08,405 --> 00:21:10,096
IT'S A YOUNG'UN ON
THE LANDSCAPE OF
357
00:21:10,130 --> 00:21:12,995
CROCODILIANS IN
THE MODERN WORLD.
358
00:21:15,653 --> 00:21:18,932
SO, DESPITE THEIR
PRE-HISTORIC APPEARANCE,
359
00:21:18,967 --> 00:21:23,972
IT TURNS OUT THAT OVER THEIR
230 MILLION YEAR HISTORY,
360
00:21:24,213 --> 00:21:27,700
CROCODILES HAVE BEEN
IN CONSTANT EVOLUTION.
361
00:21:29,771 --> 00:21:30,944
THEY HAVE PROVED THEMSELVES
362
00:21:30,979 --> 00:21:33,637
TO BE ONE OF THE MOST
RESILIENT LINEAGES
363
00:21:33,671 --> 00:21:35,604
ON THE FACE OF THE PLANET.
364
00:21:36,916 --> 00:21:39,056
FOR ME,
THESE CROCODILES
365
00:21:39,090 --> 00:21:42,680
SORT OF REPRESENT
AN ORGANISM THAT
366
00:21:42,715 --> 00:21:44,579
THROUGH THE HISTORY
OF LIFE ON EARTH,
367
00:21:44,613 --> 00:21:47,858
IT'S FOUND A WAY TO PERSIST.
368
00:21:47,892 --> 00:21:50,481
THE STORY OF
THE CROCODILE LINEAGE
369
00:21:50,516 --> 00:21:52,725
IS OF DEEP TIME TRANSFORMATIONS
370
00:21:52,759 --> 00:21:56,798
THAT PRODUCED A WILD
DIVERSITY OF CROC SPECIES,
371
00:21:56,832 --> 00:21:58,903
FOLLOWED BY A STEEP DECLINE.
372
00:22:00,526 --> 00:22:04,012
TODAY THERE ARE JUST
A HANDFUL OF CROCS
373
00:22:04,046 --> 00:22:08,637
AND THE STRANGE ANIMALS THAT
GAVE RISE TO THEM ARE ALL GONE.
374
00:22:11,191 --> 00:22:14,609
THE SURVIVING CROCS
ARE ALL VERY SIMILAR,
375
00:22:15,437 --> 00:22:18,682
ALL SHORELINE PREDATORS
OF THE TROPICS.
376
00:22:21,270 --> 00:22:25,482
BUT WHILE THE CROCODILE
LINEAGE HAS BOTTLENECKED,
377
00:22:25,516 --> 00:22:27,760
ANOTHER LINEAGE IS EXPERIENCING
378
00:22:27,794 --> 00:22:30,797
A WILD EXPLOSION OF DIVERSITY.
379
00:22:56,685 --> 00:23:00,551
BIRDS HAVE COLONIZED EVERY
ENVIRONMENT ON EARTH.
380
00:23:00,586 --> 00:23:03,036
AND THEY COME IN AN
ASTONISHING VARIETY
381
00:23:03,071 --> 00:23:06,108
OF SHAPES, COLORS, AND SIZES.
382
00:23:08,110 --> 00:23:09,422
THERE ARE MORE
SPECIES OF BIRDS
383
00:23:09,457 --> 00:23:12,632
THAN ANY OTHER GROUP OF
VERTEBRATES THAT LIVES ON LAND.
384
00:23:16,947 --> 00:23:20,053
THEY CAN CROSS THE
HIMALAYAS ON WING.
385
00:23:21,054 --> 00:23:23,919
THEY CAN DIVE INTO
A PART OF THE OCEAN
386
00:23:23,954 --> 00:23:25,783
WHERE SUNLIGHT DOES NOT REACH.
387
00:23:28,821 --> 00:23:31,202
THEY CAN MIGRATE
BETWEEN CONTINENTS.
388
00:23:33,170 --> 00:23:35,966
SO, THEY ARE TRULY REMARKABLE.
389
00:23:38,140 --> 00:23:39,418
BIRDS HAVE COLONIZED
390
00:23:39,452 --> 00:23:42,938
NOT ONLY THE NATURAL
ENVIRONMENTS OF THE PLANET
391
00:23:42,973 --> 00:23:46,563
BUT ALSO THE URBAN
SPACES CREATED BY HUMANS.
392
00:23:47,667 --> 00:23:49,980
THERE ARE MORE THAN
10,000 SPECIES OF BIRDS,
393
00:23:50,014 --> 00:23:52,707
BUT EVEN MORE
STRIKING THAN THAT,
394
00:23:52,741 --> 00:23:55,123
THERE ARE MORE THAN
HALF THAT NUMBER
395
00:23:55,157 --> 00:23:59,299
IS JUST WITHIN ONE
LINEAGE, SONGBIRDS.
396
00:23:59,334 --> 00:24:01,750
SO THAT MEANS THE BIRDS
THAT ARE IN YOUR BACKYARD
397
00:24:01,785 --> 00:24:06,237
ARE PART OF WHAT IS TRULY
AN EXTRAORDINARY EVOLUTION.
398
00:24:09,137 --> 00:24:10,310
SO, WHAT'S THE STORY
399
00:24:10,345 --> 00:24:13,831
BEHIND THE SPREAD OF
BIRDS ACROSS THE PLANET?
400
00:24:13,866 --> 00:24:18,215
HOW DID THEY COME TO BE
EVERYWHERE AND SO DIVERSE?
401
00:24:20,666 --> 00:24:22,564
THINGS THAT CAN
SEEM SO COMMONPLACE,
402
00:24:22,599 --> 00:24:25,153
CROWS OR PIGEONS IN A PARK
403
00:24:25,187 --> 00:24:28,328
ARE THE LEAVINGS OF
AN AMAZING HISTORY
404
00:24:28,363 --> 00:24:31,815
THAT STRETCHES BACK HUNDREDS
OF MILLIONS OF YEARS.
405
00:24:34,334 --> 00:24:37,717
OUR UNDERSTANDING
OF THAT EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY
406
00:24:37,752 --> 00:24:40,755
BEGAN WITH ONE
EXTRAORDINARY FOSSIL
407
00:24:40,789 --> 00:24:44,172
DISCOVERED IN THE
1860'S IN GERMANY,
408
00:24:44,206 --> 00:24:45,656
ARCHAEOPTERYX.
409
00:24:48,072 --> 00:24:50,040
THIS FOSSIL,
TO MANY PEOPLE,
410
00:24:50,074 --> 00:24:51,662
MIGHT JUST LOOK LIKE ROAD KILL
411
00:24:51,697 --> 00:24:53,284
OR SOMETHING THAT
HIT YOUR WINDOW.
412
00:24:55,217 --> 00:25:00,153
BUT IN FACT, TO ME THESE
BONES, THEY COME TO LIFE.
413
00:25:00,188 --> 00:25:02,811
AND THE WINGS ARE MOVING,
414
00:25:02,846 --> 00:25:04,917
COVERED IN FEATHERS,
415
00:25:04,951 --> 00:25:08,161
BUT WITH MOBILE
CLAWS AT THEIR TIPS.
416
00:25:08,196 --> 00:25:12,994
MOST STRIKING IS A LONG,
BONY TALE WITH FEATHERS.
417
00:25:14,789 --> 00:25:17,723
150 MILLION-YEARS-OLD,
418
00:25:17,757 --> 00:25:20,001
ARCHAEOPTERYX WAS A BIRD.
419
00:25:20,035 --> 00:25:22,762
IT HAD FEATHERS
AND IT COULD FLY.
420
00:25:22,797 --> 00:25:26,007
BUT WITH ITS CLAWS,
TAIL AND TOOTHED BEAK,
421
00:25:26,041 --> 00:25:30,080
THERE WAS SOMETHING ALMOST
DINOSAUR-LIKE ABOUT IT.
422
00:25:30,114 --> 00:25:33,773
IT LED PROPONENTS OF THE
NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION
423
00:25:33,808 --> 00:25:36,431
TO MAKE A SENSATIONAL CLAIM.
424
00:25:36,465 --> 00:25:40,918
BIRDS MUST HAVE
EVOLVED FROM DINOSAURS.
425
00:25:41,643 --> 00:25:45,405
WHEN I LOOK AT THIS, I
SEE AN ICON OF EVOLUTION.
426
00:25:45,440 --> 00:25:48,063
IT WAS ONE OF THE FIRST KEY
427
00:25:48,098 --> 00:25:52,102
AND TOTALLY UNAVOIDABLE
PIECES OF EVIDENCE
428
00:25:52,136 --> 00:25:53,828
CONSISTENT WITH EVOLUTION.
429
00:25:54,656 --> 00:25:58,280
BUT THE THEORY THAT BIRDS
EVOLVED FROM DINOSAURS
430
00:25:58,315 --> 00:26:00,766
MET INTENSE OPPOSITION.
431
00:26:00,800 --> 00:26:03,941
HOW COULD SOMETHING
SO HUGE AND HEAVY
432
00:26:03,976 --> 00:26:07,289
EVOLVE INTO SOMETHING
SO SMALL AND LIGHT?
433
00:26:09,050 --> 00:26:10,534
ONE OF THE BIGGEST OBJECTIONS
434
00:26:10,569 --> 00:26:15,125
WAS THAT NO DINOSAUR HAD EVER
BEEN FOUND WITH A WISHBONE,
435
00:26:15,159 --> 00:26:18,335
IN BIRDS, THE CRUCIAL
BRACE FOR THE CHEST
436
00:26:18,369 --> 00:26:20,268
THAT MAKES FLIGHT POSSIBLE.
437
00:26:22,477 --> 00:26:23,892
THE SEARCH WAS ON.
438
00:26:24,583 --> 00:26:28,345
IF SCIENTISTS COULD FIND A
DINOSAUR WITH A WISHBONE,
439
00:26:28,379 --> 00:26:30,209
THEY WOULD CLINCH THE CASE,
440
00:26:31,520 --> 00:26:34,800
BUT FOR A CENTURY, THEY FAILED.
441
00:26:41,496 --> 00:26:44,292
THEN IN THE 1960'S,
442
00:26:44,326 --> 00:26:48,952
PALEONTOLOGIST JOHN OSTROM
HIT PAY DIRT.
443
00:26:51,195 --> 00:26:55,096
A DINOSAUR FOSSIL,
WITH A WISHBONE.
444
00:26:56,891 --> 00:27:00,688
HE CALLED IT DEINONYCHUS,
TERRIBLE CLAW.
445
00:27:01,861 --> 00:27:04,450
HERE WE HAVE
DEINONYCHUS ANTIRRHOPUS,
446
00:27:04,484 --> 00:27:07,384
THE FOSSIL THAT CHANGED
EVERYTHING THAT WE KNOW
447
00:27:07,418 --> 00:27:09,766
ABOUT THE ORIGIN OF BIRDS
448
00:27:09,800 --> 00:27:13,045
AND FUNDAMENTALLY
ALTERED OUR UNDERSTANDING
449
00:27:13,079 --> 00:27:15,047
OF HOW FLIGHT EVOLVED.
450
00:27:16,048 --> 00:27:19,189
DEINONYCHUS WAS
A FEROCIOUS PREDATOR
451
00:27:19,223 --> 00:27:20,604
WITH WING-LIKE ARMS
452
00:27:20,639 --> 00:27:24,850
AND ALL THE BONES AND
MUSCLES NECESSARY FOR FLIGHT.
453
00:27:24,884 --> 00:27:26,368
BUT IT COULDN'T FLY.
454
00:27:27,266 --> 00:27:30,234
HERE'S AN ANIMAL WITH
FORELIMBS MUCH TOO SHORT
455
00:27:30,269 --> 00:27:34,031
AND MUCH TOO HEAVY IN THE
BODY TO BE ABLE TO FLY,
456
00:27:34,066 --> 00:27:36,344
YET IT HAS ALL THE
BELLS AND WHISTLES
457
00:27:36,378 --> 00:27:39,312
THAT WE ASSOCIATE WITH
THE FLIGHT STROKE.
458
00:27:42,522 --> 00:27:46,181
NOT ONLY THAT,
IT HAD FEATHERS TOO.
459
00:27:47,079 --> 00:27:50,116
BUT ALL THIS HAD NOTHING
TO DO WITH FLIGHT.
460
00:27:50,876 --> 00:27:52,981
ITS FEATHERS WERE FOR WARMTH
461
00:27:54,396 --> 00:27:57,365
AND ITS CLAWED WINGS
WERE FOR KILLING.
462
00:28:03,820 --> 00:28:05,511
THE ARMS UP
AGAINST THE BODY,
463
00:28:05,545 --> 00:28:07,582
AND YOU SHOOT IT
DOWN AND FORWARD,
464
00:28:07,616 --> 00:28:10,378
GRAB YOUR PREY,
DRAG IT UP AND BACK.
465
00:28:10,412 --> 00:28:12,069
DOWN AND FORWARD, UP AND BACK,
466
00:28:12,104 --> 00:28:13,830
DOWN AND FORWARD, UP AND BACK.
467
00:28:13,864 --> 00:28:16,039
THAT'S THE FLIGHT STROKE.
468
00:28:16,073 --> 00:28:18,800
SO, ALL THE DETAILS,
469
00:28:18,835 --> 00:28:21,907
THE BASIC ARCHITECTURE, AT
LEAST, OF THE FLIGHT STROKE
470
00:28:21,941 --> 00:28:26,049
IS EVOLVED IN AN ANIMAL
THAT IS NOT USING IT TO FLY.
471
00:28:28,085 --> 00:28:31,364
AMAZINGLY, THESE
TOOLS BUILT FOR KILLING
472
00:28:33,539 --> 00:28:35,748
WOULD EVENTUALLY POWER FLIGHT.
473
00:28:39,165 --> 00:28:42,168
SO YOU HAVE FEATHERS
AND YOU HAVE THE FLIGHT STROKE
474
00:28:42,203 --> 00:28:43,929
COLLIDING IN ONE ANIMAL,
475
00:28:43,963 --> 00:28:46,414
SO THE SKIES WERE
NO LONGER A BARRIER
476
00:28:46,448 --> 00:28:48,865
TO THE EVOLUTION OF DINOSAURS.
477
00:28:48,899 --> 00:28:53,007
AND THAT'S WHY WE THINK THAT
BIRDS ARE LIVING DINOSAURS.
478
00:28:56,010 --> 00:28:58,391
DEINONYCHUS
WAS POWERFUL EVIDENCE
479
00:28:58,426 --> 00:29:01,567
THAT DINOSAURS
GAVE RISE TO BIRDS.
480
00:29:01,601 --> 00:29:06,883
BUT THE MANY STAGES OF THAT
EVOLUTION WERE STILL UNKNOWN.
481
00:29:06,917 --> 00:29:11,335
TO COMPLETE THE STORY,
SCIENTISTS NEEDED MORE FOSSILS.
482
00:29:14,994 --> 00:29:18,032
ANOTHER LONG WAIT BEGAN.
483
00:29:22,484 --> 00:29:24,590
THEN IN THE 1990'S,
484
00:29:24,624 --> 00:29:28,318
FARMERS IN A REMOTE PROVINCE
OF NORTHEASTERN CHINA
485
00:29:28,352 --> 00:29:32,149
BLEW THE STORY OF BIRD
EVOLUTION WIDE OPEN.
486
00:29:34,980 --> 00:29:36,602
THEY HAD BEEN TURNING UP ROCKS
487
00:29:36,636 --> 00:29:38,535
WITH THE OUTLINES
OF BIRDS IN THEM
488
00:29:38,569 --> 00:29:40,571
FOR AS LONG AS THEY
COULD REMEMBER.
489
00:29:43,402 --> 00:29:47,613
THEY HAD NO IDEA THESE WERE
THE BIRD/DINOSAUR FOSSILS
490
00:29:47,647 --> 00:29:49,442
SCIENTISTS HAD BEEN WAITING FOR.
491
00:29:57,347 --> 00:29:59,245
BY THE LATE 1990'S,
492
00:29:59,280 --> 00:30:02,973
FOSSIL FEVER HAD BROKEN
OUT IN LIAONING PROVINCE.
493
00:30:05,976 --> 00:30:08,876
AT FIRST, NOBODY
KNEW HOW VALUABLE THEY WERE.
494
00:30:11,533 --> 00:30:12,914
BUT THEN WE FOUND OUT.
495
00:30:12,949 --> 00:30:14,364
WE ALL STARTED TO DIG.
496
00:30:14,398 --> 00:30:15,261
I DID TOO.
497
00:30:17,539 --> 00:30:19,921
I FOUND SOMETHING THAT
LOOKED LIKE A BIRD.
498
00:30:19,956 --> 00:30:21,336
I DIDN'T KNOW WHAT IT WAS,
499
00:30:21,371 --> 00:30:23,960
BUT THEY SAID IT WAS SOMETHING
CALLED CONFUCIUSORNIS.
500
00:30:25,340 --> 00:30:29,310
A SINGLE FOSSIL
COULD BRING A YEAR'S INCOME.
501
00:30:29,344 --> 00:30:31,968
AS FARMERS SCOURED
THE LANDSCAPE,
502
00:30:32,002 --> 00:30:35,040
THE FOSSILS STARTED TO POUR IN,
503
00:30:35,074 --> 00:30:39,458
HUNDREDS OF ANCIENT BIRDS FROM
THE TIME OF THE DINOSAURS.
504
00:30:41,356 --> 00:30:43,220
THE FOSSILS FROM
WESTERN LIAONING
505
00:30:43,255 --> 00:30:45,947
STARTED TO SHOW US THE
TRANSITIONAL FORMS.
506
00:30:45,982 --> 00:30:48,191
THEY SHOWED US THE
EARLIEST BIRDS WITH BEAKS,
507
00:30:48,225 --> 00:30:51,263
THE EARLIEST BIRDS WITH SHORT
TAILS, LIKE LIVING BIRDS.
508
00:30:53,230 --> 00:30:55,370
BIRD FOSSILS
ARE EXTREMELY RARE
509
00:30:55,405 --> 00:30:58,028
BECAUSE BIRD BONES
ARE SO DELICATE.
510
00:30:58,857 --> 00:31:04,034
BUT HERE IN NORTHEASTERN
CHINA, 130 MILLION YEARS AGO,
511
00:31:04,345 --> 00:31:06,726
A UNIQUE COMBINATION
OF CIRCUMSTANCES
512
00:31:06,761 --> 00:31:11,490
CREATED THE PERFECT CONDITIONS
FOR THEIR PRESERVATION.
513
00:31:12,801 --> 00:31:15,080
IF YOU WERE
ABLE TO COME BACK HERE
514
00:31:15,114 --> 00:31:18,704
131 TO 120 MILLION YEARS
AGO AND LOOKED OUT,
515
00:31:18,738 --> 00:31:22,156
YOU WOULD HAVE SEEN LAKES
AS FAR AS THE EYE COULD SEE,
516
00:31:22,190 --> 00:31:24,641
WITH ACTIVE VOLCANOES
GOING OFF AROUND THEM
517
00:31:24,675 --> 00:31:26,367
AND A FORESTED ENVIRONMENT
518
00:31:26,401 --> 00:31:28,748
GROWING BY THE SHORES
OF THESE LAKES.
519
00:31:28,783 --> 00:31:30,440
AND THIS FOREST WOULD
HAVE BEEN TEEMING
520
00:31:30,474 --> 00:31:32,200
WITH SMALL, FEATHERED DINOSAURS.
521
00:31:34,064 --> 00:31:37,171
AS THOSE SMALL
FEATHERED DINOSAURS DIED
522
00:31:37,205 --> 00:31:40,174
AND FELL OR WERE
WASHED INTO LAKES,
523
00:31:40,208 --> 00:31:44,074
THEY WERE QUICKLY BURIED
IN LAYERS OF VOLCANIC ASH.
524
00:31:50,218 --> 00:31:51,012
THE RESULT?
525
00:31:52,186 --> 00:31:56,638
AN EXTRAORDINARY RECORD OF
CRETACEOUS BIRD/DINOSAURS
526
00:31:56,673 --> 00:31:59,607
PERFECTLY PRESERVED IN STONE.
527
00:32:02,230 --> 00:32:04,301
THE AMAZING
THING ABOUT THESE FOSSILS
528
00:32:04,336 --> 00:32:07,649
IS THE EXCEPTIONAL
PRESERVATION OF SOFT TISSUES,
529
00:32:07,684 --> 00:32:11,757
WHICH REVEAL THESE EXTINCT
ANIMALS IN A LEVEL OF DETAIL
530
00:32:11,791 --> 00:32:15,174
THAT WE PALEONTOLOGISTS NEVER
PREVIOUSLY THOUGHT POSSIBLE.
531
00:32:16,313 --> 00:32:19,075
FOSSILIZED
ALONG WITH THE BIRDS
532
00:32:19,109 --> 00:32:20,766
WERE PLANTS AND SEEDS,
533
00:32:20,800 --> 00:32:23,355
ALLOWING SCIENTISTS
TO RECONSTRUCT
534
00:32:23,389 --> 00:32:25,978
THE FORESTED
ENVIRONMENT OF THE TIME.
535
00:32:27,048 --> 00:32:30,776
TOGETHER, THE WEALTH
OF LIAONING FOSSILS
536
00:32:30,810 --> 00:32:34,090
REVEAL A WORLD WHERE
CREATURES REPRESENTING
537
00:32:34,124 --> 00:32:37,817
EVERY STAGE OF DINOSAUR
TO BIRD EVOLUTION
538
00:32:37,852 --> 00:32:40,268
LIVED SIDE BY SIDE.
539
00:32:41,131 --> 00:32:43,789
THEY SHOW HOW
NATURE EXPERIMENTED
540
00:32:43,823 --> 00:32:47,551
WITH EVERY ASPECT OF WHAT
WOULD FINALLY MAKE A BIRD,
541
00:32:48,414 --> 00:32:52,971
BEAKS, WINGS,
FEATHERS, AND FLIGHT.
542
00:32:54,800 --> 00:32:57,113
THERE WAS CAUDIPTERYX,
543
00:32:57,147 --> 00:33:01,565
A SMALL FEATHERED DINOSAUR THAT
HAD WINGS BUT COULDN'T FLY.
544
00:33:02,566 --> 00:33:05,673
LIVING ALONGSIDE IT
WERE CREATURES THAT FLEW
545
00:33:05,707 --> 00:33:08,814
BUT STILL HAD MANY
DINOSAUR CHARACTERISTICS,
546
00:33:08,848 --> 00:33:13,129
TEETH, LONG TAILS, AND
CLAWS ON THEIR WINGS,
547
00:33:14,061 --> 00:33:17,685
AND THERE WERE CREATURES
LIKE CONFUCIUSORNIS,
548
00:33:17,719 --> 00:33:20,412
ALMOST IDENTICAL
TO MODERN BIRDS.
549
00:33:24,140 --> 00:33:27,384
THE FEATHERED DINOSAURS
OF LIAONING ARE A REMINDER
550
00:33:27,419 --> 00:33:30,767
THAT EVOLUTION DOES NOT
MOVE IN A STRAIGHT LINE.
551
00:33:33,356 --> 00:33:34,633
THERE'S A COMMON PERCEPTION
552
00:33:34,667 --> 00:33:37,808
THAT EVOLUTION PROCEEDS
IN A VERY LINEAR FASHION.
553
00:33:37,843 --> 00:33:39,672
SO YOU HAVE A LITTLE DINOSAUR
554
00:33:39,707 --> 00:33:44,367
THAT SOMEHOW DECIDES,
QUOTE/UNQUOTE, TO BECOME A BIRD.
555
00:33:44,401 --> 00:33:47,335
BUT ACTUALLY, THE
MANY BIRD FEATURES
556
00:33:47,370 --> 00:33:48,888
WERE GRADUALLY ACQUIRED.
557
00:33:48,923 --> 00:33:52,271
THERE WERE A LOT OF DEAD ENDS
IN THIS EVOLUTIONARY PROCESS.
558
00:33:55,274 --> 00:33:56,724
JUST LIKE DEINONYCHUS,
559
00:33:56,758 --> 00:33:59,313
THE LIAONING FOSSILS
SHOW THAT WINGS
560
00:33:59,347 --> 00:34:01,384
AND FEATHERS EVOLVED SEPARATELY
561
00:34:02,316 --> 00:34:05,526
AND FOR REASONS THAT HAVE
NOTHING TO DO WITH FLIGHT.
562
00:34:13,430 --> 00:34:15,915
IT WAS ONLY AFTER
MILLIONS OF YEARS
563
00:34:15,950 --> 00:34:18,539
THAT THESE THINGS CAME TOGETHER
564
00:34:18,573 --> 00:34:21,473
TO MAKE THE CREATURE
WE CALL A BIRD.
565
00:34:23,371 --> 00:34:24,821
IN FACT,
WHAT WE'VE LEARNED
566
00:34:24,855 --> 00:34:26,892
FROM THIS HUGE
DIVERSITY OF FOSSILS
567
00:34:26,926 --> 00:34:29,653
IS THAT THESE FEATURES THAT
WE ASSOCIATE WITH MODERN BIRDS
568
00:34:29,688 --> 00:34:32,070
ACTUALLY EVOLVED MULTIPLE TIMES.
569
00:34:34,658 --> 00:34:37,627
THE LIAONING
FOSSILS OPENED A WINDOW
570
00:34:37,661 --> 00:34:40,216
ON THE PROFUSION OF
FEATHERED DINOSAURS
571
00:34:40,250 --> 00:34:42,632
THAT POPULATED THE WHOLE WORLD
572
00:34:42,666 --> 00:34:45,117
MANY MILLIONS OF YEARS AGO.
573
00:34:46,601 --> 00:34:47,878
WHAT HAPPENED TO THEM ALL?
574
00:34:49,949 --> 00:34:52,814
MOST DIED OUT IN THE
SAME EXTINCTION EVENT
575
00:34:52,849 --> 00:34:56,853
THAT KILLED THE BIG TERRESTRIAL
DINOSAURS AND MOST CROCS.
576
00:34:59,614 --> 00:35:03,687
BUT LIKE THE CROCS, A FEW
BIRDS SQUEAKED THROUGH.
577
00:35:05,689 --> 00:35:07,864
THOSE FEW SURVIVORS GAVE RISE
578
00:35:07,898 --> 00:35:10,384
TO ALL THE BIRD ON EARTH TODAY.
579
00:35:11,626 --> 00:35:15,423
HOW DID THAT AMAZING STORY
OF SURVIVAL PLAY OUT?
580
00:35:16,183 --> 00:35:19,703
REMARKABLY, THE SCIENTISTS
ARE SOLVING THAT MYSTERY,
581
00:35:19,738 --> 00:35:22,706
NOT FROM BONES, BUT FROM DNA.
582
00:35:23,535 --> 00:35:26,676
SO WHAT HAPPENED IS THAT
THIS MASS EXTINCTION OCCURS,
583
00:35:26,710 --> 00:35:29,265
MAYBE AS A RESULT OF A
BIG, GIANT METEORITE,
584
00:35:29,299 --> 00:35:30,956
THEN CLIMATE CHANGE
AND SO FORTH.
585
00:35:30,990 --> 00:35:33,234
A FEW GROUPS OF BIRDS SURVIVE,
586
00:35:33,269 --> 00:35:35,478
ONLY FIVE PERCENT OF
THE SPECIES SURVIVE.
587
00:35:39,447 --> 00:35:40,966
ERICH
AND HIS COLLEAGUES
588
00:35:41,000 --> 00:35:43,865
COMPARED THE GENOMES OF
DIFFERENT BIRD SPECIES
589
00:35:43,900 --> 00:35:47,697
TO CALCULATE THEIR
DEGREES OF SIMILARITY.
590
00:35:47,731 --> 00:35:49,561
THEY COULD THEN FIGURE OUT
591
00:35:49,595 --> 00:35:52,460
WHEN THEY LAST SHARED
COMMON ANCESTORS.
592
00:35:53,530 --> 00:35:55,739
FIRST THING WE
FIGURED OUT IS THAT
593
00:35:55,774 --> 00:35:57,189
THOSE ONES THAT SURVIVED,
594
00:35:57,224 --> 00:36:00,744
WITH THE DEEPEST BRANCHES IN
THE TREE THAT WE GENERATED
595
00:36:00,779 --> 00:36:02,781
WERE THE ONES THAT
WERE SHORE BIRDS,
596
00:36:02,815 --> 00:36:05,301
THAT CAN SURVIVE IN WATER,
THAT CAN SURVIVE IN LAND,
597
00:36:05,335 --> 00:36:07,337
THAT SURVIVE IN
DIFFERENT HABITATS.
598
00:36:08,856 --> 00:36:11,997
ALONG WITH SHORE BIRDS
LIKE DUCKS AND GEESE,
599
00:36:12,031 --> 00:36:16,174
THE ANCESTORS OF OSTRICHES
AND EMUS ALSO SURVIVED.
600
00:36:18,037 --> 00:36:21,593
THEN THOSE FEW FOUR OR
FIVE LINEAGES THAT SURVIVE,
601
00:36:21,627 --> 00:36:23,767
IN A 15-MILLION-YEAR WINDOW,
602
00:36:23,802 --> 00:36:27,944
GAVE RISE TO EVERY SPECIES THAT
WE ARE LOOKING AT NOW TODAY.
603
00:36:30,843 --> 00:36:33,432
SCIENTISTS ARE
FINALLY IN A POSITION
604
00:36:33,467 --> 00:36:36,918
TO SEE THE WHOLE VAST
AVIAN TREE OF LIFE.
605
00:36:39,611 --> 00:36:44,305
ARISING WITH THE DINOSAURS,
THE BIRD LINEAGE EXPERIMENTED
606
00:36:44,340 --> 00:36:49,345
FOR MILLIONS OF YEARS WITH
FEATHERS, BEAKS AND WINGS.
607
00:36:49,552 --> 00:36:52,520
IT BARELY SURVIVED A
MAJOR EXTINCTION EVENT
608
00:36:52,555 --> 00:36:57,560
BEFORE FINALLY FLOWERING IN
THE 10,000 SPECIES ALIVE TODAY.
609
00:37:05,740 --> 00:37:08,433
BUT WHILE THE BIRD
LINEAGE EXPLODED
610
00:37:08,467 --> 00:37:12,471
AND BIRDS COLONIZED
EVERY HABITAT ON EARTH,
611
00:37:12,506 --> 00:37:17,511
ANOTHER LINEAGE CONCENTRATED
ON COLONIZING JUST THE SEAS.
612
00:37:28,556 --> 00:37:31,076
FOR AS LONG AS HUMANS
HAVE KNOWN THEM,
613
00:37:31,110 --> 00:37:34,252
WHALES HAVE INSPIRED
FEAR AND WONDER.
614
00:37:36,702 --> 00:37:39,464
HOW COULD THESE
GIANTS OF THE DEEP
615
00:37:39,498 --> 00:37:41,431
HAVE GROWN SO HUGE?
616
00:37:43,399 --> 00:37:46,402
HOW COULD AIR-BREATHING
CREATURES LIKE US
617
00:37:46,436 --> 00:37:49,577
HAVE COME TO LIVE IN
THE DEPTHS OF THE OCEAN?
618
00:37:57,067 --> 00:37:59,000
WHAT SCIENCE NOW KNOWS ABOUT
619
00:37:59,035 --> 00:38:02,521
THESE LEVIATHANS OF
THE DEEP IS AMAZING.
620
00:38:05,628 --> 00:38:09,494
BOWHEAD WHALES CAN LIVE
FOR UP TO 200 YEARS,
621
00:38:10,357 --> 00:38:12,876
LONGER THAN ANY OTHER
MAMMAL ON EARTH.
622
00:38:15,154 --> 00:38:20,159
SPERM WHALES CAN DIVE TO
DEPTHS OF OVER 3000 FEET
623
00:38:20,194 --> 00:38:22,852
AND STAY UNDERWATER
FOR AN HOUR AND A HALF
624
00:38:22,886 --> 00:38:24,025
WITHOUT BREATHING.
625
00:38:30,584 --> 00:38:33,518
BLUE WHALES ARE THE
BIGGEST CREATURES
626
00:38:33,552 --> 00:38:35,623
TO EVER HAVE LIVED ON EARTH,
627
00:38:36,486 --> 00:38:39,489
BIGGER EVEN THAN THE
LARGEST DINOSAURS.
628
00:38:45,564 --> 00:38:49,844
UP TO A HUNDRED FEET LONG
AND 200 TONS IN WEIGHT,
629
00:38:49,879 --> 00:38:52,916
THEY HAVE A HEART THE
SIZE OF A SMALL CAR.
630
00:38:54,780 --> 00:38:57,921
AND THESE GIANTS OF THE
DEEP SING TO EACH OTHER,
631
00:38:57,956 --> 00:39:02,616
COMMUNICATING OVER VAST
DISTANCES IN A LANGUAGE OF SONG
632
00:39:02,650 --> 00:39:06,136
THAT RESEARCHERS STILL
DON'T FULLY UNDERSTAND.
633
00:39:10,796 --> 00:39:13,178
HOW DID THESE GARGANTUAN ANIMALS
634
00:39:13,212 --> 00:39:15,974
AND THEIR REMARKABLE
BEHAVIOR EVOLVE?
635
00:39:18,977 --> 00:39:21,151
FOR SO LONG IT WAS A MYSTERY.
636
00:39:23,222 --> 00:39:25,742
WE'VE KNOWN THAT
THE WHALES ARE MAMMALS
637
00:39:25,777 --> 00:39:28,607
SINCE THE 18TH AND
19TH CENTURIES,
638
00:39:28,642 --> 00:39:31,196
BECAUSE THEY'RE WARM BLOODED
AND THEY SUCKLE THEIR YOUNG,
639
00:39:31,230 --> 00:39:34,682
BUT WE DIDN'T KNOW
WHERE THEY CAME FROM.
640
00:39:46,073 --> 00:39:48,765
DARWIN TALKED ABOUT
THE ORIGIN OF WHALES
641
00:39:48,800 --> 00:39:51,112
IN HIS CLASSIC BOOK
THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES
642
00:39:51,147 --> 00:39:53,080
WHERE HE SAID SOMEONE HE KNEW
643
00:39:53,114 --> 00:39:56,117
HAD OBSERVED A BEAR
SWIMMING AROUND,
644
00:39:56,152 --> 00:39:58,603
SKIMMING INSECTS OFF
THE SURFACE OF THE WATER
645
00:39:58,637 --> 00:40:01,778
AND HE SUGGESTED THAT
PERHAPS SOMETHING LIKE A BEAR
646
00:40:01,813 --> 00:40:03,642
COULD HAVE EVOLVED INTO A WHALE,
647
00:40:03,677 --> 00:40:05,610
THE KIND OF WHALE
THAT FILTER FEEDS
648
00:40:05,644 --> 00:40:06,783
BY DOING SOMETHING SIMILAR
649
00:40:06,818 --> 00:40:09,545
AND GETTING BETTER AND
BETTER AT IT OVER TIME.
650
00:40:11,754 --> 00:40:14,550
NOW DARWIN WAS NOT
CORRECT ABOUT THAT,
651
00:40:14,584 --> 00:40:16,552
BUT AT LEAST HE
COULD CONCEPTUALIZE
652
00:40:16,586 --> 00:40:18,830
OF A WAY THAT
WHALES HAD EVOLVED.
653
00:40:18,864 --> 00:40:21,867
BUT BASICALLY, WE DIDN'T
KNOW WHERE WHALES CAME FROM
654
00:40:21,902 --> 00:40:23,835
UNTIL EXTREMELY RECENTLY.
655
00:40:27,286 --> 00:40:29,668
THE FASCINATION
WITH WHALE EVOLUTION
656
00:40:29,703 --> 00:40:32,084
BEGAN IN THE 19TH CENTURY.
657
00:40:33,085 --> 00:40:37,227
STORIES OF SEA MONSTERS FILLED
THE POPULAR IMAGINATION.
658
00:40:40,748 --> 00:40:43,544
WHEN THE FIRST FOSSIL
WHALE WAS UNEARTHED,
659
00:40:43,579 --> 00:40:48,066
ITS DISCOVERERS THOUGHT THEY'D
FOUND A GIGANTIC SEA SERPENT.
660
00:40:48,100 --> 00:40:50,586
IT WAS CALLED BASILOSAURUS.
661
00:40:50,931 --> 00:40:53,589
IT WAS DISCOVERED
IN NORTH AMERICA
662
00:40:53,623 --> 00:40:56,177
ALONG THE GULF
COAST IN THE 1830'S,
663
00:40:56,212 --> 00:40:58,214
AND IT WAS ACTUALLY
THE FIRST FOSSIL WHALE
664
00:40:58,248 --> 00:41:00,872
EVER TO BE SCIENTIFICALLY
NAMED AND STUDIED.
665
00:41:01,631 --> 00:41:04,323
THE GENTLEMAN WHO NAMED
IT, A MAN NAMED HARLAN,
666
00:41:04,358 --> 00:41:06,878
HAD READ ABOUT
LARGE SEA SERPENTS
667
00:41:06,912 --> 00:41:09,225
BEING DISCOVERED
ELSEWHERE IN THE WORLD,
668
00:41:09,259 --> 00:41:12,608
AND SO HE THOUGHT THAT
THIS WAS SOMETHING SIMILAR.
669
00:41:12,642 --> 00:41:15,611
AND THUS HE NAMED THIS
ANIMAL BASILOSAURUS,
670
00:41:15,645 --> 00:41:17,647
WHICH MEANS KING LIZARD.
671
00:41:20,236 --> 00:41:23,860
UP TO 50 FEET
LONG WITH FEROCIOUS TEETH,
672
00:41:23,895 --> 00:41:27,243
BASILOSAURUS WAS A
FORMIDABLE MARINE PREDATOR.
673
00:41:29,763 --> 00:41:34,630
FINALLY, IN 1841, IT WAS
IDENTIFIED AS A WHALE
674
00:41:34,664 --> 00:41:38,979
AND DATED TO ABOUT
35 MILLION YEARS AGO.
675
00:41:39,013 --> 00:41:41,809
FOR ALMOST A CENTURY
AFTER ITS DISCOVERY,
676
00:41:41,844 --> 00:41:45,675
BASILOSAURUS REMAINED
THE OLDEST KNOWN WHALE.
677
00:41:45,710 --> 00:41:49,541
IT WAS ASSUMED TO BE THE
ANCESTOR OF ALL LIVING WHALES.
678
00:41:50,749 --> 00:41:52,924
SO AFTER THE DISCOVERY
OF BASILOSAURUS,
679
00:41:52,958 --> 00:41:54,408
THERE WERE OTHER WHALES FOUND
680
00:41:54,442 --> 00:41:57,929
THAT WERE JUST A LITTLE BIT
EARLIER AND MORE PRIMITIVE,
681
00:41:57,963 --> 00:41:59,137
BUT NOT BY VERY MUCH,
682
00:41:59,171 --> 00:42:02,727
MAYBE FIVE MILLION YEARS
OLDER THAN BASILOSAURUS.
683
00:42:02,761 --> 00:42:05,799
AND IT DIDN'T PUSH THE
ORIGIN BACK IN TIME,
684
00:42:05,833 --> 00:42:09,699
AND WE REALLY DIDN'T
DISCOVER A WHOLE LOT MORE
685
00:42:09,734 --> 00:42:11,114
ABOUT THE ORIGIN OF WHALES.
686
00:42:13,151 --> 00:42:15,912
THE DEEP ORIGINS
OF THE WHALE LINEAGE
687
00:42:15,947 --> 00:42:19,157
WERE A MYSTERY UNTIL 1975,
688
00:42:19,191 --> 00:42:22,954
WHEN A PALEONTOLOGIST WENT ON
A FOSSIL HUNTING EXPEDITION
689
00:42:23,333 --> 00:42:25,128
TO PAKISTAN.
690
00:42:25,163 --> 00:42:28,304
HE WASN'T LOOKING FOR
EARLY WHALES AT ALL.
691
00:42:29,029 --> 00:42:32,342
I WAS INTERESTED IN
HOW ARCHAIC MAMMALS
692
00:42:32,377 --> 00:42:34,862
CHANGED INTO THE MODERN MAMMALS.
693
00:42:34,897 --> 00:42:36,864
THINGS LIKE THE FIRST HORSES,
694
00:42:36,899 --> 00:42:39,108
THAT'S WHAT I WAS INTERESTED IN.
695
00:42:39,142 --> 00:42:42,421
I TOOK SEVERAL STUDENTS WITH
ME AND COLLEAGUES FROM PARIS
696
00:42:42,456 --> 00:42:47,703
AND WE LOOKED FIRST IN PUNJAB
PROVINCE, THEN SOUTH IN SINDH.
697
00:42:47,737 --> 00:42:50,326
WE STILL HADN'T FOUND
ANYTHING VERY INTERESTING.
698
00:42:50,360 --> 00:42:53,398
AND WE WENT TO THE
NORTHWEST FRONTIER PROVINCE.
699
00:42:53,432 --> 00:42:55,814
AND THERE, HIGH ON A HILL,
700
00:42:55,849 --> 00:42:58,886
WE FOUND A LITTLE
JAW OF A LAND MAMMAL.
701
00:43:00,439 --> 00:43:03,408
LATER THEY
FOUND A PIECE OF SKULL,
702
00:43:03,442 --> 00:43:04,823
AND ITS STRANGE EAR BONES
703
00:43:04,858 --> 00:43:09,310
FINALLY UNLOCKED THE SECRETS
OF EARLY WHALE EVOLUTION.
704
00:43:10,380 --> 00:43:13,901
THIS IS WHAT WAS
LEFT, THE BACK OF A SKULL,
705
00:43:13,936 --> 00:43:17,215
AND IF YOU LOOK
AT THE UNDERSIDE,
706
00:43:17,249 --> 00:43:21,495
IT HAS THE COVERING OF
THE EAR ON THE RIGHT SIDE
707
00:43:21,529 --> 00:43:24,394
AND THAT COVERING IS
MISSING ON THE LEFT SIDE.
708
00:43:25,188 --> 00:43:28,606
THOSE EAR BONES
TURNED OUT TO BE THE KEY.
709
00:43:29,607 --> 00:43:31,919
PHILIP THOUGHT HE WAS
LOOKING AT THE SKULL
710
00:43:31,954 --> 00:43:34,266
OF SOMETHING LIKE
A PRIMITIVE DEER,
711
00:43:34,301 --> 00:43:38,374
BUT IT UNMISTAKABLY HAD
THE EAR BONES OF A WHALE.
712
00:43:41,308 --> 00:43:44,345
WHALES HAVE A SPECIAL
STRUCTURE OF THE EAR
713
00:43:44,380 --> 00:43:47,038
TO BE ABLE TO HEAR IN WATER.
714
00:43:47,072 --> 00:43:49,178
IT TURNS OUT THAT
THEY EFFECTIVELY
715
00:43:49,212 --> 00:43:52,077
SEE IN WATER BY USING SOUND.
716
00:43:52,112 --> 00:43:55,909
AND SO TO DO THIS THE
EARS HAVE BECOME MODIFIED.
717
00:43:59,602 --> 00:44:02,156
THE EAR BONES OF
WHALES ARE VERY DENSE,
718
00:44:02,191 --> 00:44:07,230
AND THAT DENSITY HELPS THEM
TO HEAR SOUND IN THE WATER.
719
00:44:07,265 --> 00:44:11,545
MAMMAL EARS ORIGINALLY EVOLVED
IN TERRESTRIAL ANIMALS,
720
00:44:11,579 --> 00:44:16,757
AND SO THEIR STRUCTURE IS
OPTIMAL FOR HEARING IN AIR.
721
00:44:17,862 --> 00:44:21,486
AND IN WATER, SOUND
BEHAVES REALLY DIFFERENTLY.
722
00:44:21,520 --> 00:44:25,939
SO, FOR EXAMPLE, IF YOU GO
INTO A POOL OR UNDER A LAKE,
723
00:44:25,973 --> 00:44:27,941
YOU CAN HEAR SOUND BUT
IT'S A LITTLE MUFFLED,
724
00:44:27,975 --> 00:44:30,495
BUT THE ONE THING YOU CAN'T
DO IS YOU CAN'T FIGURE OUT
725
00:44:30,529 --> 00:44:32,808
WHERE THE SOUND IS
COMING FROM AROUND YOU.
726
00:44:32,842 --> 00:44:35,362
AND THAT'S BECAUSE THE
WAY MAMMALS DO THIS IS,
727
00:44:35,396 --> 00:44:38,468
IS THEY USE THE
DIFFERENCE IN TIME BETWEEN
728
00:44:38,503 --> 00:44:41,782
WHEN A SOUND HITS YOUR
RIGHT EAR AND YOUR LEFT EAR
729
00:44:41,817 --> 00:44:44,095
TO FIGURE OUT WHAT DIRECTION
THE SOUND IS COMING FROM.
730
00:44:44,129 --> 00:44:46,235
SO IF THE SOUND IS
OFF TO MY RIGHT,
731
00:44:46,269 --> 00:44:49,134
IT HITS MY RIGHT EAR
FIRST, THEN MY LEFT EAR,
732
00:44:49,169 --> 00:44:52,241
AND SO MY BRAIN SAYS THE
SOUND IS OVER TO MY RIGHT.
733
00:44:52,275 --> 00:44:56,383
BUT IN WATER, THE TISSUE
OF YOUR FACE AND SKULL
734
00:44:56,417 --> 00:44:58,868
IS ABOUT THE SAME
DENSITY AS WATER.
735
00:44:58,903 --> 00:45:01,250
SO THE SOUND, RATHER THAN
GOING AROUND MY SKULL
736
00:45:01,284 --> 00:45:03,908
TO MY LEFT EAR, GOES
RIGHT THROUGH IT.
737
00:45:03,942 --> 00:45:06,048
SO IT GETS TO MY LEFT EAR
738
00:45:06,082 --> 00:45:08,844
AT ALMOST THE SAME
TIME AS MY RIGHT EAR.
739
00:45:08,878 --> 00:45:11,294
AND I CAN'T TELL WHERE
THE SOUND IS COMING FROM.
740
00:45:11,329 --> 00:45:14,056
SO THE ADDED DENSITY
TO WHALE EARS
741
00:45:14,090 --> 00:45:16,127
IS REESTABLISHING THEIR ABILITY
742
00:45:16,161 --> 00:45:18,060
TO HEAR DIRECTIONALLY UNDERWATER.
743
00:45:18,819 --> 00:45:22,340
PHILIP'S FOSSIL HAD
THAT SAME DISTINCTIVE EAR,
744
00:45:22,374 --> 00:45:26,137
AND IT WAS 49 MILLION YEARS OLD.
745
00:45:26,171 --> 00:45:28,864
THAT COULD ONLY MEAN ONE THING.
746
00:45:28,898 --> 00:45:33,834
HERE AT LAST WAS ONE OF
THE VERY FIRST WHALES.
747
00:45:33,869 --> 00:45:35,905
PHILIP NAMED IT PAKICETUS.
748
00:45:37,286 --> 00:45:39,150
ONCE WE KNEW
IT WAS A WHALE,
749
00:45:39,184 --> 00:45:42,325
WE KNEW IT WAS THE OLDEST
WHALE ANYONE HAD EVER FOUND.
750
00:45:43,257 --> 00:45:46,157
PAKICETUS PUSHED
THE ORIGINS OF WHALES
751
00:45:46,191 --> 00:45:49,056
BACK 15 MILLION YEARS
752
00:45:49,091 --> 00:45:51,334
TO THE TIME WHEN THE
INDIAN SUBCONTINENT
753
00:45:51,369 --> 00:45:54,441
WAS SLOWLY CRASHING INTO ASIA.
754
00:45:55,822 --> 00:46:00,550
WHERE PAKICETUS WAS FOUND
WAS ONCE AN OCEAN SHORELINE,
755
00:46:01,413 --> 00:46:06,556
ITS EARS MADE IT CLEAR
PAKICETUS SPENT TIME UNDERWATER,
756
00:46:07,212 --> 00:46:09,939
BUT OTHER FRAGMENTS OF SKELETON
757
00:46:09,974 --> 00:46:13,287
ALSO CLEARLY SHOWED IT
WALKED ON FOUR LEGS.
758
00:46:13,943 --> 00:46:16,566
HOW DID THIS STRANGE
BEAST GIVE RISE
759
00:46:16,601 --> 00:46:19,017
TO THE GIANTS WE KNOW TODAY?
760
00:46:28,924 --> 00:46:31,927
AT THE MUSEUM OF NATURAL
HISTORY IN PARIS,
761
00:46:31,961 --> 00:46:35,206
ONE OF THE BIRTHPLACES
OF PALEONTOLOGY,
762
00:46:35,240 --> 00:46:36,690
THEY HAVE BEEN ASSEMBLING
763
00:46:36,724 --> 00:46:41,074
THE SKELETONS OF PREHISTORIC
ANIMALS FOR OVER 200 YEARS.
764
00:46:47,218 --> 00:46:50,462
THEY NOW HAVE ONE OF THE
FEW COMPLETE RECONSTRUCTIONS
765
00:46:50,497 --> 00:46:54,087
OF THE EXTRAORDINARY
WHALE ANCESTOR, PAKICETUS.
766
00:46:57,331 --> 00:46:59,299
YOU SEE IT IS A
QUADRUPEDAL ANIMAL
767
00:46:59,333 --> 00:47:01,680
WITH THE HIGHER
FORELIMBS AND HIND LIMBS.
768
00:47:01,715 --> 00:47:06,582
IT MEANS THAT THIS ANIMAL WAS
DEFINITELY PARTLY TERRESTRIAL.
769
00:47:06,616 --> 00:47:08,964
AND OBVIOUSLY IT'S A
QUITE A STRANGE ANIMAL,
770
00:47:08,998 --> 00:47:12,450
VERY SMALL, DOESN'T
WHALE-LOOKING AT ALL.
771
00:47:12,484 --> 00:47:15,142
IT MORE LOOKS LIKE A
DOG WITH A LONG SNOUT.
772
00:47:17,282 --> 00:47:18,352
PAKICETUS IS ONE OF
773
00:47:18,387 --> 00:47:22,460
THE STRANGEST
SURPRISES OF EVOLUTION,
774
00:47:22,494 --> 00:47:26,395
A WHALE ANCESTOR THAT
LOOKS LIKE A SMALL WOLF
775
00:47:26,429 --> 00:47:28,397
WITH WEBBED FEET FOR SWIMMING.
776
00:47:29,363 --> 00:47:31,262
THE KEY
THING ABOUT IT IS,
777
00:47:31,296 --> 00:47:35,231
IT HAS ELONGATED
FINGER AND TOE BONES,
778
00:47:35,266 --> 00:47:38,441
SO CLEARLY IT'S
ALREADY SEMI AQUATIC.
779
00:47:45,586 --> 00:47:48,866
PAKICETUS WAS A
CREATURE OF THE SHORELINE,
780
00:47:49,590 --> 00:47:50,764
HUNTING FOR FISH
781
00:47:50,798 --> 00:47:54,216
AND PERHAPS OTHER SMALL
ANIMALS IN THE SHALLOWS.
782
00:47:55,148 --> 00:47:58,289
AND WE THINK THAT IT
WAS USING ITS LONGER SNOUT
783
00:47:58,323 --> 00:48:01,361
TO PROBE FOR AQUATIC
PREY IN THE WATER.
784
00:48:01,395 --> 00:48:03,190
AND SO IT WAS
FEEDING IN THE WATER,
785
00:48:03,225 --> 00:48:04,709
WHILE ALMOST CERTAINLY
GOING OUT ON LAND
786
00:48:04,743 --> 00:48:06,331
TO BREED AND HAVE THEIR YOUNG.
787
00:48:09,472 --> 00:48:12,544
ONCE THEY ADAPTED
TO LIFE IN THE SHALLOWS,
788
00:48:12,579 --> 00:48:16,307
IT TOOK 10 MILLION YEARS FOR
THE DESCENDENTS OF PAKICETUS
789
00:48:16,341 --> 00:48:18,205
TO BECOME FULLY AQUATIC.
790
00:48:20,518 --> 00:48:22,071
WHY DID IT TAKE SO LONG?
791
00:48:23,762 --> 00:48:27,905
BECAUSE TO LIVE UNDER
WATER, THEY HAD TO CHANGE!
792
00:48:28,975 --> 00:48:32,254
IT IS ONE OF THE MOST
REMARKABLE STORIES
793
00:48:32,288 --> 00:48:37,190
OF TOTAL PHYSICAL TRANSFORMATION
IN THE ANNALS OF EVOLUTION.
794
00:48:41,435 --> 00:48:43,161
AFTER PAKICETUS,
795
00:48:43,196 --> 00:48:46,440
WHALES TAKE ABOUT 10 TO 12
MILLION YEARS
796
00:48:46,475 --> 00:48:49,202
TO EVOLVE INTO
FULLY AQUATIC FORMS.
797
00:48:49,236 --> 00:48:53,585
AND DURING THAT TIME THEIR
HIND LIMBS TEND TO GET SMALLER
798
00:48:53,620 --> 00:48:55,794
AND THEIR SKULLS
TEND TO GET LONGER.
799
00:48:55,829 --> 00:48:58,487
AND THE NARIS, WHICH IS
THE HOLE IN THE SKULL
800
00:48:58,521 --> 00:49:03,285
WHERE THE NOSE IS,
MOVES UP THE SKULL.
801
00:49:03,319 --> 00:49:07,220
IN ADDITION, THEIR FORELIMBS
TEND TO TURN INTO FLIPPERS,
802
00:49:07,254 --> 00:49:09,429
AND THEY GET MORE
VERTEBRAE IN THEIR BACK,
803
00:49:09,463 --> 00:49:11,465
WHICH MAKES THEIR BODIES LONGER.
804
00:49:13,260 --> 00:49:15,814
BUT THERE WAS STILL ONE
GREAT TRANSFORMATION
805
00:49:15,849 --> 00:49:17,644
TO TAKE PLACE IN WHALES,
806
00:49:19,266 --> 00:49:20,129
BALEEN FEEDING.
807
00:49:22,373 --> 00:49:24,547
SO NEAR THE BASE OF
THE WHALE FAMILY TREE
808
00:49:24,582 --> 00:49:25,755
THERE'S THIS MAJOR SPLIT
809
00:49:25,790 --> 00:49:27,965
INTO THE TWO GROUPS
THAT WE HAVE TODAY.
810
00:49:28,172 --> 00:49:30,691
WE HAVE TOOTHED WHALES AND
THEN WE HAVE BALEEN WHALES
811
00:49:30,726 --> 00:49:33,073
THAT ACTUALLY LOSE
THEIR TEETH ENTIRELY.
812
00:49:33,108 --> 00:49:35,455
AND THEY GROW WHAT ARE
CALLED BALEEN PLATES
813
00:49:35,489 --> 00:49:36,835
THAT ARE MADE OF KERATIN.
814
00:49:36,870 --> 00:49:39,700
SO THEY'RE ACTUALLY MORE
LIKE HAIR OR FINGERNAILS.
815
00:49:39,735 --> 00:49:42,772
AND THESE WHALES USE IT
TO FILTER THEIR FOOD.
816
00:49:42,807 --> 00:49:46,086
SO THEY'LL TAKE
BIG GULPS OF WATER
817
00:49:46,121 --> 00:49:47,570
AND THEY'LL ACTUALLY
FILTER THEIR PREY,
818
00:49:47,605 --> 00:49:49,503
LITTLE TINY
MICROSCOPIC ORGANISMS,
819
00:49:49,538 --> 00:49:51,747
OUT OF THAT WATER USING
THE BALEEN PLATES.
820
00:49:55,923 --> 00:49:57,822
THE SPLIT
INTO TOOTHED WHALES
821
00:49:57,856 --> 00:49:59,858
LIKE ORCAS AND DOLPHINS,
822
00:49:59,893 --> 00:50:03,897
AND BALEEN WHALES, LIKE
BLUE WHALES AND HUMPBACKS
823
00:50:03,931 --> 00:50:06,486
HAPPENED ABOUT 30
MILLION YEARS AGO.
824
00:50:10,559 --> 00:50:14,804
THE TOOTHED WHALES REMAINED,
LIKE THEIR ANCIENT ANCESTORS,
825
00:50:14,839 --> 00:50:18,187
PREDATORS, LIVING MOSTLY
IN COASTAL WATERS.
826
00:50:20,776 --> 00:50:22,812
THERE THEY COULD FEED ON FISH,
827
00:50:22,847 --> 00:50:27,817
OR LIKE SOME OF THE ORCAS,
SEALS, AND BABY SEA LIONS.
828
00:50:38,828 --> 00:50:39,933
THE BALEEN FEEDERS
829
00:50:39,967 --> 00:50:43,281
UNDERWENT A MUCH
GREATER TRANSFORMATION.
830
00:50:46,595 --> 00:50:49,874
WITH A RADICALLY NEW
WAY OF FILTER FEEDING,
831
00:50:49,908 --> 00:50:55,086
THEY MOVED INTO THE DEEP
OCEANS AND BECAME HUGE.
832
00:50:57,744 --> 00:50:58,607
WHY?
833
00:51:00,574 --> 00:51:04,820
FOR A LONG TIME, THE MASSIVE
SIZE OF SOME BALEEN WHALES
834
00:51:04,854 --> 00:51:05,786
WAS A PUZZLE.
835
00:51:09,583 --> 00:51:12,448
BUT IT TURNS OUT
THAT IN THE OCEAN,
836
00:51:12,483 --> 00:51:14,864
GREAT SIZE IS AN ADVANTAGE.
837
00:51:17,660 --> 00:51:20,594
IF YOU LOOK AT THE
ENERGY BUDGET OF THESE ANIMALS,
838
00:51:20,629 --> 00:51:25,461
THEY USE FEWER CALORIES
PER UNIT BODY MASS
839
00:51:25,496 --> 00:51:26,807
WHEN YOU GET BIGGER.
840
00:51:26,842 --> 00:51:30,432
AND SO, THEY'RE MORE
EFFICIENT WHEN THEY'RE HUGE.
841
00:51:30,466 --> 00:51:32,710
THEY'RE ALSO MORE
EFFICIENT WHEN THEY MOVE,
842
00:51:32,744 --> 00:51:35,230
WHEN THEY SWIM AT
LARGE BODY SIZE.
843
00:51:35,264 --> 00:51:39,751
SO THERE'S ADVANTAGES TO
BEING LARGE IN THE OCEAN.
844
00:51:41,891 --> 00:51:46,241
THE HUGE SIZE OF BALEEN
WHALES IS ALSO LINKED
845
00:51:46,275 --> 00:51:49,761
TO ONE OF THE LAST GREAT
PLANETARY TRANSFORMATIONS.
846
00:51:50,693 --> 00:51:52,592
ARGENTINA AND
SOUTH AMERICA
847
00:51:52,626 --> 00:51:55,250
BECOME COMPLETELY
SEPARATE FROM ANTARCTICA.
848
00:51:55,284 --> 00:51:57,528
AND THAT CHANGES THE
CURRENTS IN THE OCEAN SYSTEM,
849
00:51:57,562 --> 00:51:59,978
AND IT SEEMS TO REALLY
HAVE A PROFOUND IMPACT
850
00:52:00,013 --> 00:52:01,532
ON WHAT WHALES ARE DOING.
851
00:52:03,775 --> 00:52:07,262
THE COLD CURRENT THAT
BEGAN TO CIRCLE ANTARCTICA
852
00:52:07,296 --> 00:52:10,368
LED TO A VAST UPSURGE
IN THE KRILL POPULATION
853
00:52:10,403 --> 00:52:12,301
THAT BALEEN WHALES FEED ON.
854
00:52:13,854 --> 00:52:15,580
WITH LARGE AMOUNTS OF FOOD
855
00:52:15,615 --> 00:52:19,032
AND THE EFFICIENT BALEEN
FILTER FEEDING SYSTEM,
856
00:52:19,066 --> 00:52:21,862
THERE WAS SIMPLY NOTHING
TO STOP BALEEN WHALES
857
00:52:21,897 --> 00:52:23,623
FROM BECOMING HUGE.
858
00:52:29,836 --> 00:52:31,182
ALONG WITH BALEEN,
859
00:52:31,217 --> 00:52:34,565
WHALES HAVE DEVELOPED
SOPHISTICATED FISHING BEHAVIORS
860
00:52:34,599 --> 00:52:35,911
TO TRAP THEIR PREY.
861
00:52:38,879 --> 00:52:41,468
HUMPBACKS RELY ON
THE HELP OF GULLS.
862
00:52:45,023 --> 00:52:48,303
AND WHAT'S HAPPENING
IS THE DIVING BIRDS
863
00:52:48,337 --> 00:52:52,445
ARE FORCING THE HERRING
TOGETHER, THAT FORM A HUGE BALL.
864
00:52:52,479 --> 00:52:54,757
THAT GIVES THE GULLS
AT THE SURFACE A CHANCE
865
00:52:54,792 --> 00:52:58,036
TO PROPEL THEMSELVES DOWN
AND TRY TO GRAB A HERRING
866
00:52:58,071 --> 00:53:00,038
AND THEN SOMEHOW
THE HUMPBACKS KNOW
867
00:53:00,073 --> 00:53:02,351
THAT THERE'S A
CONCENTRATION OF FEED THERE.
868
00:53:04,733 --> 00:53:07,391
AND THEY COME WITH THEIR
HUGE MOUTHS, GULP IT DOWN,
869
00:53:07,425 --> 00:53:09,703
GET RID OF THE SALT
WATER THROUGH THEIR BALEEN
870
00:53:09,738 --> 00:53:11,326
AND SWALLOW.
871
00:53:12,050 --> 00:53:13,120
JACKIE
HAS BEEN WORKING
872
00:53:13,155 --> 00:53:15,295
WITH THE HUMPBACK
WHALE POPULATION
873
00:53:15,330 --> 00:53:18,885
OFF NORTHERN VANCOUVER
ISLAND FOR ALMOST 20 YEARS.
874
00:53:21,370 --> 00:53:23,959
JACKIE'S WORK HAS
LED HER TO MARVEL
875
00:53:23,993 --> 00:53:27,894
AT THE DELICATE WEB OF
RELATIONSHIPS LINKING HUMPBACKS
876
00:53:27,928 --> 00:53:31,208
TO EVERY ASPECT OF
THE MARINE ECOSYSTEM.
877
00:53:32,416 --> 00:53:33,693
IT'S PERFECTION.
878
00:53:33,727 --> 00:53:35,936
IT'S BEEN GOING ON LONGER
THAN WE CAN UNDERSTAND.
879
00:53:38,387 --> 00:53:39,630
KNOWING WHALES,
880
00:53:39,664 --> 00:53:44,393
KEEPS ME IN A STATE OF
HUMILITY AND MYSTERY,
881
00:53:46,361 --> 00:53:49,778
WHICH I THINK IS HOW A
HUMAN LIFE IS WELL LIVED.
882
00:53:49,812 --> 00:53:52,643
IT MAKES ME FEEL CONNECTED.
883
00:53:52,677 --> 00:53:54,645
IT MAKES ME FEEL
APPROPRIATELY SMALL
884
00:53:54,679 --> 00:53:57,268
IN THE PRESENCE OF GIANTS.
885
00:54:04,965 --> 00:54:06,657
OVER
MILLIONS OF YEARS,
886
00:54:06,691 --> 00:54:10,281
WHALES GREW HUGE AS
THEY EXPLORED THE SEAS,
887
00:54:11,455 --> 00:54:16,080
BUT ANOTHER MAMMAL GREW HUGE
AS IT EXPLORED THE EARTH,
888
00:54:16,114 --> 00:54:19,739
EVOLVING ITS OWN REMARKABLE
TOOLS FOR LIFE ON LAND.
889
00:54:32,096 --> 00:54:34,754
FOR MILLENNIA THESE
STATELY CREATURES
890
00:54:34,788 --> 00:54:37,653
HAVE PATROLLED THE
AFRICAN SAVANNAS,
891
00:54:37,688 --> 00:54:40,346
TRANSFORMING THE
LAND AS THEY GO.
892
00:55:00,987 --> 00:55:03,610
WE'RE DRIVING
ALONG TRACKS
893
00:55:03,645 --> 00:55:05,681
THAT THE ELEPHANTS HAVE MADE.
894
00:55:05,716 --> 00:55:07,994
THEY'VE BEEN WALKING
ON THESE TRAILS
895
00:55:08,028 --> 00:55:09,409
PROBABLY FOR HUNDREDS OF YEARS.
896
00:55:09,444 --> 00:55:13,482
THEY CREATE PATHS THAT THEY
THEN USE FOR GENERATIONS.
897
00:55:24,631 --> 00:55:26,875
ELEPHANTS ARE SUCH
EXTRAORDINARY ANIMALS.
898
00:55:26,909 --> 00:55:29,636
THE MORE WE LEARN ABOUT THEM,
THE MORE WE REALIZE THAT
899
00:55:30,361 --> 00:55:33,951
WE ACTUALLY ARE ONLY JUST
SCRATCHING THE SURFACE.
900
00:55:33,985 --> 00:55:35,746
EVERY NEW DISCOVERIES EMERGE
901
00:55:35,780 --> 00:55:37,575
THAT ELEPHANTS CAN
UNDERSTAND THINGS
902
00:55:37,610 --> 00:55:41,199
THAT WE COULDN'T HAVE
DREAMED POSSIBLE.
903
00:55:41,234 --> 00:55:43,926
AND I THINK WE'LL NEVER
UNCOVER THEIR SECRETS.
904
00:55:48,655 --> 00:55:51,486
SCIENTISTS HAVE SHOWN
THAT ELEPHANTS COMMUNICATE
905
00:55:51,520 --> 00:55:56,525
THROUGH CALLS, TOUCH, AND
EVEN LOW FREQUENCY VIBRATIONS,
906
00:55:56,939 --> 00:55:59,735
WHICH CAN TRAVEL
UNDERGROUND FOR MILES.
907
00:56:01,703 --> 00:56:05,500
BUT THERE'S STILL A LOT THAT
THEY DON'T FULLY UNDERSTAND.
908
00:56:06,432 --> 00:56:08,572
IT WOULD BE AMAZING
IF WE COULD ACTUALLY
909
00:56:08,606 --> 00:56:11,644
UNCOVER WHAT IT
IS THAT THEY KNOW.
910
00:56:11,678 --> 00:56:14,785
I REALLY THINK THAT WE ARE
BLUNDERING ABOUT RIGHT NOW
911
00:56:14,819 --> 00:56:16,821
BECAUSE WE DON'T
EVEN HAVE THE TOOLS
912
00:56:16,856 --> 00:56:18,685
TO MEASURE HOW THEY COMMUNICATE.
913
00:56:19,824 --> 00:56:21,136
AND PAULA IS CERTAIN
914
00:56:21,170 --> 00:56:24,726
THAT ALONG WITH THEIR ABILITY
TO TALK TO EACH OTHER,
915
00:56:24,760 --> 00:56:28,108
THEY EXPERIENCE MANY OF
THE SAME EMOTIONS WE FEEL,
916
00:56:29,178 --> 00:56:32,458
GRIEF, ANGER AND EMPATHY.
917
00:56:33,251 --> 00:56:36,427
SHE SENSES A
MYSTERIOUS INNER LIFE.
918
00:56:38,256 --> 00:56:40,086
WHEN YOU SIT WITH
THEM FOR HOURS,
919
00:56:40,120 --> 00:56:42,537
THIS LIKE WEALTH OF SENSATIONS
920
00:56:42,571 --> 00:56:43,814
JUST KEEP COMING AND
COMING AND COMING
921
00:56:43,848 --> 00:56:45,643
AND IT JUST SEEMS TO BE ENDLESS.
922
00:56:46,506 --> 00:56:48,232
I FEEL LIKE I CAN REALLY SENSE
923
00:56:48,266 --> 00:56:50,096
WHAT IS GOING ON
WITH THOSE ELEPHANTS.
924
00:56:50,130 --> 00:56:52,029
AND THE LONGER I
SPEND WITH ELEPHANTS,
925
00:56:52,063 --> 00:56:54,825
THE MORE I FEEL
IN TUNE WITH THEM.
926
00:56:57,690 --> 00:56:59,968
AS MUCH AS
SHE ADMIRES THEM,
927
00:57:00,002 --> 00:57:04,731
PAULA IS KEENLY AWARE THAT
ELEPHANTS TODAY ARE IN TROUBLE.
928
00:57:06,906 --> 00:57:11,289
THERE USED TO BE DOZENS
OF SPECIES OF ELEPHANTS.
929
00:57:11,324 --> 00:57:12,463
AND NOW THERE ARE JUST THREE.
930
00:57:12,670 --> 00:57:16,087
AND IF WE'RE NOT CAREFUL
WE WILL LOSE THEM AS WELL,
931
00:57:16,122 --> 00:57:19,919
AND THAT WILL BE THE END OF
THE LINEAGE OF ELEPHANTS.
932
00:57:21,023 --> 00:57:23,750
COULD THE ANCIENT
LINEAGE OF ELEPHANTS
933
00:57:23,785 --> 00:57:25,442
REALLY BE COMING TO AN END?
934
00:57:27,685 --> 00:57:29,963
HOW DID THESE
MAGNIFICENT ANIMALS
935
00:57:29,998 --> 00:57:34,071
GO FROM MYRIAD SPECIES
TO JUST THREE TODAY?
936
00:57:35,693 --> 00:57:37,626
AND HOW DID THE
ANCIENT HISTORIES OF
937
00:57:37,661 --> 00:57:39,835
HUMANS AND ELEPHANTS
938
00:57:39,870 --> 00:57:44,495
BECOME SO INTERTWINED?
939
00:57:49,224 --> 00:57:53,987
AS WITH EVERY LINEAGE IT'S A
STORY THAT BEGINS IN DEEP TIME,
940
00:57:54,954 --> 00:57:57,197
A STORY TOLD BY FOSSILS,
941
00:57:57,991 --> 00:58:01,719
MOST OF THEM FOUND IN THE
BIRTHPLACE OF ELEPHANTS,
942
00:58:03,687 --> 00:58:04,550
AFRICA.
943
00:58:06,759 --> 00:58:10,659
THE DEEP ORIGINS OF ELEPHANTS
LIE IN THE TURKANA BASIN
944
00:58:10,694 --> 00:58:11,936
IN NORTHERN KENYA.
945
00:58:13,006 --> 00:58:16,838
IN A PLACE CALLED BULUK,
SCIENTISTS ARE FINDING FOSSILS
946
00:58:16,872 --> 00:58:20,635
THAT POINT TO A MAGNIFICENT
AGE OF ELEPHANTS.
947
00:58:24,362 --> 00:58:27,607
THIS IS FROM THE
RIGHT SIDE OF THE JAW.
948
00:58:28,332 --> 00:58:31,059
FOSSILS ARE THE
MESSENGERS OF THE PAST.
949
00:58:31,093 --> 00:58:31,956
I BELIEVE THAT.
950
00:58:33,889 --> 00:58:36,098
I THINK THAT WE,
AS PALEONTOLOGISTS,
951
00:58:36,133 --> 00:58:37,790
ARE TRYING TO BE
THE INTERPRETERS
952
00:58:37,824 --> 00:58:39,585
OF THE MESSENGERS FROM THE PAST.
953
00:58:40,482 --> 00:58:43,174
THEY GIVE YOU THE
OPPORTUNITY TO SEE
954
00:58:43,209 --> 00:58:45,832
THE KIND OF INCREDIBLE JOURNEY
955
00:58:45,867 --> 00:58:48,973
THAT ELEPHANTS HAD TO
MAKE TO BECOME ELEPHANTS.
956
00:58:49,008 --> 00:58:51,666
IT TOOK 60-MILLION YEARS
TO MAKE AN ELEPHANT.
957
00:58:54,392 --> 00:58:57,085
TODAY, BULUK
IS ONE OF THE HOTTEST,
958
00:58:57,119 --> 00:58:59,881
DRIEST PLACES ON EARTH.
959
00:58:59,915 --> 00:59:02,262
BUT 17 MILLION YEARS AGO,
960
00:59:02,297 --> 00:59:06,094
IT WAS A LUSH FOREST
WITH RIVERS AND WETLANDS.
961
00:59:06,819 --> 00:59:08,096
IT'S A VERY
WET CLIMATE.
962
00:59:08,130 --> 00:59:11,962
I'S A VERY EQUABLE
CLIMATE, VERY WARM CLIMATE.
963
00:59:11,996 --> 00:59:14,930
IT'S A GREAT PLACE
TO BE A BROWSER.
964
00:59:14,965 --> 00:59:17,381
IT'S A GREAT PLACE TO GO
OUT AND LOOK FOR VEGETATION,
965
00:59:17,415 --> 00:59:19,590
A GREAT PLACE TO GO GET A SALAD,
966
00:59:20,349 --> 00:59:22,248
AFRICA IN THE EARLY MIOCENE.
967
00:59:24,112 --> 00:59:26,252
HOW CAN
SCIENTISTS RECONSTRUCT
968
00:59:26,286 --> 00:59:28,116
THOSE VANISHED ENVIRONMENTS?
969
00:59:29,048 --> 00:59:32,396
IT TURNS OUT ANCIENT
LANDSCAPES LEAVE TRACES
970
00:59:32,430 --> 00:59:35,019
JUST LIKE ANCIENT ANIMALS DO.
971
00:59:36,262 --> 00:59:40,059
WE OFTEN FIND FOSSIL
WOOD AND FOSSIL SEEDS,
972
00:59:40,093 --> 00:59:42,993
SO THAT'S TELLING US SOMETHING
ABOUT THE ENVIRONMENT
973
00:59:43,027 --> 00:59:47,894
AND THE RED SEDIMENTS
AROUND US ARE ANCIENT SOILS.
974
00:59:47,929 --> 00:59:50,138
THEY'RE ACTUALLY ANCIENT
FLOODPLAIN DEPOSITS.
975
00:59:50,172 --> 00:59:52,209
SO THE ANIMALS WOULD
HAVE BEEN LIVING
976
00:59:52,243 --> 00:59:55,695
OUT ON THESE FLOOD PLAINS
IN THESE FORESTED AREAS.
977
00:59:56,662 --> 00:59:59,699
WE'RE TRYING TO RECONSTRUCT
THE WHOLE ENVIRONMENT
978
00:59:59,734 --> 01:00:01,149
THAT THESE ANIMALS
WERE LIVING IN.
979
01:00:01,183 --> 01:00:03,738
IF YOU GO IN AND JUST
PICK UP THE BONES,
980
01:00:03,772 --> 01:00:07,258
IT'S LIKE TAKING THE CHOCOLATE
CHIPS OUT OF THE COOKIES.
981
01:00:07,293 --> 01:00:10,986
SO WE WORK WITH GEOLOGISTS
AND CLIMATE SCIENTISTS
982
01:00:11,021 --> 01:00:12,885
AND ISOTOPE SPECIALISTS
983
01:00:12,919 --> 01:00:15,025
AND ALL KINDS OF
PEOPLE, GEO CHEMISTS.
984
01:00:16,543 --> 01:00:20,340
THE PAINSTAKING WORK
OF ELLEN AND HER COLLEAGUES
985
01:00:20,375 --> 01:00:22,446
IS ALLOWING THEM TO RECONSTRUCT
986
01:00:22,480 --> 01:00:25,345
THE WHOLE VANISHED
WORLD OF ANCIENT BULUK.
987
01:00:27,209 --> 01:00:30,281
SO IF YOU WERE TO
BE TRANSPORTED BACK
988
01:00:30,316 --> 01:00:34,354
TO THE EARLY MIOCENE OF
BULUK, 17 MILLION YEARS AGO,
989
01:00:34,389 --> 01:00:38,151
IT WOULD HAVE BEEN A MATURE
MEANDERING RIVER SYSTEM
990
01:00:38,186 --> 01:00:39,325
AND A WOODLANDS.
991
01:00:39,359 --> 01:00:41,396
AND THERE WOULD HAVE
BEEN A WHOLE HOST
992
01:00:41,430 --> 01:00:43,501
OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF ELEPHANTS.
993
01:00:43,536 --> 01:00:45,883
SO YOU WOULD HAVE
HAD THE DEINOTHERES.
994
01:00:45,918 --> 01:00:47,264
THEY'RE VERY, VERY PRIMITIVE.
995
01:00:47,298 --> 01:00:49,335
THEY'RE ABOUT A THIRD OR A HALF
996
01:00:49,369 --> 01:00:50,785
THE SIZE OF A MODERN ELEPHANT
997
01:00:50,819 --> 01:00:54,202
AND THEY WOULD HAVE BEEN KIND OF
SNUFFLING ALONG THE RIVER BANKS,
998
01:00:54,236 --> 01:00:57,895
BECAUSE THEY SEEMED TO REALLY
LIKE A CLOSED CANOPY FOREST
999
01:00:57,930 --> 01:00:59,552
AND A WET ENVIRONMENT.
1000
01:00:59,586 --> 01:01:03,107
BUT AT THE SAME TIME,
YOU HAVE THE AMEBELODONS,
1001
01:01:03,142 --> 01:01:04,661
THE SHOVEL TUSKERS.
1002
01:01:04,695 --> 01:01:08,837
THE LOWER INCISORS ARE THESE
BIG LONG SHOVEL-LIKE TUSKS,
1003
01:01:08,872 --> 01:01:11,460
SO THEY WOULD HAVE USED THEM
TO SCOOP UP THEIR DINNER.
1004
01:01:13,117 --> 01:01:15,223
AS
SCIENTISTS EXCAVATE.
1005
01:01:15,257 --> 01:01:17,363
THEY ARE ASTONISHED
BY THE DIVERSITY
1006
01:01:17,397 --> 01:01:19,986
OF STRANGE BEASTS
THEY ARE DISCOVERING.
1007
01:01:26,475 --> 01:01:30,790
ANCIENT BULUK WAS A SORT OF
JURASSIC PARK OF ELEPHANTS.
1008
01:01:34,000 --> 01:01:35,968
IMAGINE I'M TAKING
YOU ON A SAFARI,
1009
01:01:36,002 --> 01:01:37,970
BUT A SAFARI BACK IN TIME.
1010
01:01:38,004 --> 01:01:40,904
YOU'LL BE CONFRONTED WITH
THESE MAGICAL CREATURES,
1011
01:01:40,938 --> 01:01:43,527
A SLICE OF AFRICA
THAT IS NOW GONE.
1012
01:01:43,561 --> 01:01:46,461
YOU'D BE CONFRONTED HERE WITH
AMAZING HERDS OF ELEPHANTS.
1013
01:01:50,983 --> 01:01:54,262
IT WOULD BE MIND-BLOWING
TO CONFRONT THIS SCENE.
1014
01:01:56,091 --> 01:02:01,096
I THINK THE MIOCENE 16
MILLION YEARS AGO AT BULUK,
1015
01:02:01,476 --> 01:02:03,858
THAT WOULD HAVE
BEEN THE CENTER OF
1016
01:02:03,892 --> 01:02:07,137
THE EMPIRE OF THE
AGE OF THE ELEPHANTS.
1017
01:02:10,485 --> 01:02:13,281
THE ANCIENT
ELEPHANTS HERE BEAR WITNESS
1018
01:02:13,315 --> 01:02:16,836
TO A GLORIOUS FLOWERING
OF THE ELEPHANT LINEAGE
1019
01:02:16,871 --> 01:02:19,287
ABOUT 17 MILLION YEARS AGO.
1020
01:02:20,909 --> 01:02:22,877
BUT WHAT WERE THEIR ORIGINS?
1021
01:02:22,911 --> 01:02:24,292
AND HOW DID THEY COME BY
1022
01:02:24,326 --> 01:02:26,950
THEIR MAGNIFICENT
TUSKS AND TRUNKS?
1023
01:02:29,228 --> 01:02:32,127
FOR DECADES, THE
EARLIEST ORIGINS
1024
01:02:32,162 --> 01:02:34,958
OF THE ELEPHANT
LINEAGE WERE A MYSTERY.
1025
01:02:38,202 --> 01:02:42,413
BUT THEN IN THE 1990'S, A FRENCH
PALEONTOLOGIST AND HIS TEAM
1026
01:02:42,448 --> 01:02:46,210
WERE EXCAVATING IN AN ABANDONED
PHOSPHATE MINE IN MOROCCO.
1027
01:02:48,281 --> 01:02:51,560
IN LAYERS DATING TO
56 MILLION YEARS AGO,
1028
01:02:51,595 --> 01:02:55,323
HE CAME ACROSS FOSSIL REMAINS
OF A MYSTERIOUS ANIMAL
1029
01:02:55,357 --> 01:02:57,912
ABOUT THE SIZE OF A SMALL DOG.
1030
01:02:57,946 --> 01:03:00,121
HE CALLED IT PHOSPHATHERIUM.
1031
01:03:02,433 --> 01:03:06,403
LATER HE CAME ACROSS FRAGMENTS
OF THE JAWS AND TEETH
1032
01:03:06,437 --> 01:03:09,337
OF AN OLDER, EVEN
SMALLER CREATURE.
1033
01:03:09,371 --> 01:03:11,822
THIS ONE WAS NO
BIGGER THAN A RABBIT.
1034
01:03:12,029 --> 01:03:13,168
VOILA.
1035
01:03:13,203 --> 01:03:14,998
AS HE PUZZLED
OVER BOTH FOSSILS,
1036
01:03:15,032 --> 01:03:17,552
HE NOTICED SOMETHING
VERY STRANGE.
1037
01:03:17,586 --> 01:03:19,278
THEIR TEETH SEEMED TO BE
1038
01:03:19,312 --> 01:03:22,350
MINIATURE REPLICAS OF
AN ELEPHANT'S TEETH.
1039
01:03:23,040 --> 01:03:26,630
THE MORE HE LOOKED THE
MORE CERTAIN HE BECAME.
1040
01:03:26,664 --> 01:03:30,185
THEY MUST BE
ANCESTRAL ELEPHANTS,
1041
01:03:30,220 --> 01:03:32,498
THE OLDEST EVER DISCOVERED.
1042
01:03:34,258 --> 01:03:36,433
IT WAS AN ASTONISHING CONCLUSION.
1043
01:03:37,158 --> 01:03:41,610
THE OLDEST ELEPHANT ANCESTOR
WAS THE SIZE OF A RABBIT.
1044
01:03:45,994 --> 01:03:47,996
IT'S REALLY AMAZING.
1045
01:03:48,031 --> 01:03:49,239
THE FOSSILS WE FOUND
1046
01:03:49,273 --> 01:03:51,551
REVEAL THE ORIGINS OF
PROBOSCIDEAN EVOLUTION.
1047
01:03:52,725 --> 01:03:54,416
WHICH USED TO BE
TOTALLY UNKNOWN.
1048
01:03:54,934 --> 01:03:57,454
I GIVE A LOT OF
CREDIT TO MY COLLEAGUE
1049
01:03:57,488 --> 01:03:58,593
EMMANUEL GHEERBRANT
1050
01:03:58,627 --> 01:04:00,664
BECAUSE IT'S LIKE
A DETECTIVE STORY.
1051
01:04:00,698 --> 01:04:03,253
IT'S A REAL PUZZLER TO
FIGURE OUT WHAT THEY ARE.
1052
01:04:03,287 --> 01:04:04,461
AND HE FOUND THESE THINGS
1053
01:04:04,495 --> 01:04:06,083
AND HE STARTED
LOOKING AT THEIR TEETH
1054
01:04:06,118 --> 01:04:07,153
AND HE REALIZED THEY HAD
1055
01:04:07,188 --> 01:04:09,673
SOME SUBTLE FEATURES
ON THEIR MOLARS,
1056
01:04:09,707 --> 01:04:12,193
THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE
CUSPS ON THEIR MOLARS
1057
01:04:12,227 --> 01:04:14,367
THAT SAID I AM A PROBOSCIDEAN.
1058
01:04:14,402 --> 01:04:18,440
FINALLY, SCIENTISTS
COULD SEE THE VERY BEGINNINGS
1059
01:04:18,475 --> 01:04:21,685
OF THE ELEPHANT
EVOLUTIONARY TREE.
1060
01:04:26,207 --> 01:04:28,243
THE KEY TRAIT
IS THE SLOW DEVELOPMENT
1061
01:04:28,278 --> 01:04:30,383
OF INCISORS AT THE
FRONT OF THE SKULL.
1062
01:04:32,351 --> 01:04:33,455
THEY ARE ALREADY STARTING
1063
01:04:33,490 --> 01:04:35,941
TO BECOME ENLARGED
IN PHOSPHATHERIUM.
1064
01:04:37,666 --> 01:04:40,014
THOSE INCISORS JUST KEEP GROWING
1065
01:04:40,048 --> 01:04:42,326
THROUGH ALL THE STAGES
OF ELEPHANT EVOLUTION
1066
01:04:43,258 --> 01:04:45,640
RIGHT UP TO MAMMOTHS
AND MODERN ELEPHANTS.
1067
01:04:48,401 --> 01:04:51,266
AS INCISORS
BECAME TUSKS,
1068
01:04:51,301 --> 01:04:55,098
THEY TOOK ON THE FUNCTIONS
THEY HAVE IN ELEPHANTS TODAY.
1069
01:04:56,030 --> 01:04:58,446
THEY'RE USED FOR
ACQUIRING FOOD,
1070
01:04:58,480 --> 01:05:01,311
FOR KNOCKING DOWN PLANTS
SO YOU CAN REACH FOOD.
1071
01:05:02,070 --> 01:05:04,348
THEY'RE USED FOR SOCIAL DISPLAY.
1072
01:05:05,487 --> 01:05:08,352
TUSKS ARE THE DEFINING
FEATURES OF ELEPHANTS
1073
01:05:08,387 --> 01:05:10,078
AND IT'S LIKE THEIR BEHAVIOR
1074
01:05:10,113 --> 01:05:11,942
IS TIED UP IN
HAVING THESE TUSKS.
1075
01:05:13,633 --> 01:05:16,015
AND AS TUSKS GREW,
1076
01:05:16,050 --> 01:05:18,293
THEY PROPELLED THE
EVOLUTION OF THE TRUNKS
1077
01:05:18,328 --> 01:05:22,194
THAT WOULD BECOME THE HALLMARK
OF ALL LATER ELEPHANTS.
1078
01:05:22,228 --> 01:05:24,506
SO I THINK ONCE YOU
START TO GET TUSKS,
1079
01:05:24,541 --> 01:05:26,508
THEN TRUNKS FOLLOW THAT.
1080
01:05:26,543 --> 01:05:27,958
IT IS IMPORTANT,
1081
01:05:27,993 --> 01:05:32,756
BECAUSE THEY HAVE TO HAVE
SOMETHING TO GET PAST THE TUSKS
1082
01:05:32,790 --> 01:05:35,276
IN ORDER TO REACH THE
FOOD IN THEIR ENVIRONMENT.
1083
01:05:36,794 --> 01:05:39,625
AS TRUNKS GREW,
THEY SLOWLY BECAME
1084
01:05:39,659 --> 01:05:42,800
THE AMAZINGLY SENSITIVE
ORGAN OF TOUCH AND SMELL
1085
01:05:42,835 --> 01:05:45,182
THEY ARE IN MODERN ELEPHANTS.
1086
01:05:48,289 --> 01:05:50,429
TRUNKS ARE MADE
UP OF SOMETHING LIKE
1087
01:05:50,463 --> 01:05:53,397
72,000 TINY MUSCLE FIBERS.
1088
01:05:53,432 --> 01:05:55,503
SO THEY'RE HIGHLY COMPLEX,
1089
01:05:55,537 --> 01:05:56,745
AND THEY CAN MOVE THEM AROUND
1090
01:05:56,780 --> 01:05:58,402
THE WAY THAT YOU CAN
MOVE YOUR HAND AROUND
1091
01:05:58,437 --> 01:05:59,817
PLAYING THE PIANO.
1092
01:05:59,852 --> 01:06:01,164
ELEPHANTS HAVE TREMENDOUS
CONTROL OVER THEIR TRUNK.
1093
01:06:01,198 --> 01:06:04,650
IT'S NOT JUST FLOPPING
AROUND AND SUCKING UP WATER.
1094
01:06:04,684 --> 01:06:06,721
THEY CAN REALLY BE VERY GENTLE.
1095
01:06:06,755 --> 01:06:10,069
THEY CAN PICK A PENNY UP OFF
THE GROUND WITH THEIR TRUNK.
1096
01:06:10,104 --> 01:06:12,623
THOSE TRUNKS GET A BIG WORKOUT.
1097
01:06:17,214 --> 01:06:20,528
TUSKS,
TRUNKS, AND GREAT SIZE
1098
01:06:20,562 --> 01:06:23,807
WERE OBVIOUSLY SUCCESSFUL
ELEPHANT ADAPTATIONS
1099
01:06:23,841 --> 01:06:25,636
TO THEIR FOREST ENVIRONMENT.
1100
01:06:26,465 --> 01:06:28,501
BUT THEY DIDN'T
JUST HELP ELEPHANTS
1101
01:06:28,536 --> 01:06:30,193
RESPOND TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT,
1102
01:06:31,125 --> 01:06:34,645
THEY GAVE THEM THE
CAPACITY TO CHANGE IT TOO.
1103
01:06:35,784 --> 01:06:39,547
SO, I THINK OF ALL THE
SPECIES THAT WE KNOW OF,
1104
01:06:39,581 --> 01:06:40,651
APART FROM HUMANS,
1105
01:06:40,686 --> 01:06:43,102
THE ONLY OTHER
MAMMALS THAT WE KNOW
1106
01:06:43,137 --> 01:06:45,898
HAVE THE CAPACITY
TO BE ABLE TO ALTER
1107
01:06:45,932 --> 01:06:49,281
THE NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS
THEY LIVE IN,
1108
01:06:49,315 --> 01:06:54,148
IN A SHORT TIME IN A VERY BIG
WAY, WOULD BE THE ELEPHANTS.
1109
01:06:56,391 --> 01:06:57,634
PROBOSCIDEANS
ARE BIG ANIMALS
1110
01:06:57,668 --> 01:06:59,601
AND YOU CAN IMAGINE
ANY BIG ANIMAL
1111
01:06:59,636 --> 01:07:02,466
GOING THROUGH A LANDSCAPE
IS KNOCKING DOWN TREES,
1112
01:07:02,501 --> 01:07:05,228
MOVING VEGETATION OUT OF
THE WAY, CREATING PATHS.
1113
01:07:07,471 --> 01:07:08,886
FOR THAT,
1114
01:07:08,921 --> 01:07:13,305
BILL BELIEVES WE HUMANS OWE
THEM A DEBT OF GRATITUDE.
1115
01:07:13,339 --> 01:07:17,826
HE THINKS ELEPHANTS HELPED
CREATE THE PERFECT CONDITIONS
1116
01:07:17,861 --> 01:07:22,452
FOR A CERTAIN GROUP OF APES
MILLIONS OF YEARS LATER
1117
01:07:22,486 --> 01:07:25,420
TO COME DOWN OUT OF THE TREES
1118
01:07:25,455 --> 01:07:28,734
AND BEGIN TO EXPLORE
THE SAVANNAS.
1119
01:07:28,768 --> 01:07:33,670
THOSE WERE OUR ANCESTORS,
THE AUSTRALOPITHECINES.
1120
01:07:33,704 --> 01:07:35,913
THE FAMOUS EARLY HUMAN LUCY
1121
01:07:35,948 --> 01:07:39,469
WAS DISCOVERED NOT
FAR FROM BULUK.
1122
01:07:39,503 --> 01:07:41,609
BILL IS CONVINCED THAT SHE
1123
01:07:41,643 --> 01:07:44,543
AND OUR OTHER EARLY
HUMAN ANCESTORS
1124
01:07:44,577 --> 01:07:47,925
FLOURISHED IN A LANDSCAPE
THAT HAD BEEN UNINTENTIONALLY
1125
01:07:47,960 --> 01:07:50,928
PREPARED FOR THEM BY ELEPHANTS.
1126
01:07:50,963 --> 01:07:53,759
THIS IDEA OF ELEPHANTS
OPENING THINGS UP
1127
01:07:53,793 --> 01:07:57,211
AND CREATING THE CONDITIONS
OF SUCCESS FOR EARLY HOMINIDS,
1128
01:07:57,245 --> 01:07:59,937
MIGHT NOT BE AN
EXAGGERATION TO SAY THAT
1129
01:07:59,972 --> 01:08:03,251
WE MIGHT NOT BE HERE
WITHOUT ELEPHANTS.
1130
01:08:05,667 --> 01:08:07,911
AND JUST
LIKE OUR ANCESTORS,
1131
01:08:07,945 --> 01:08:10,534
ELEPHANTS DID NOT STAY PUT.
1132
01:08:10,569 --> 01:08:15,125
AFTER MILLIONS OF YEARS IN
AFRICA, THEY STARTED TO LEAVE.
1133
01:08:18,784 --> 01:08:21,925
PROBOSCIDEANS LEAVE
AFRICA MULTIPLE TIMES.
1134
01:08:21,959 --> 01:08:24,617
DIFFERENT GROUPS LEAVE
AT DIFFERENT TIMES.
1135
01:08:24,652 --> 01:08:27,241
THE FIRST MAJOR
FORAY OUT OF AFRICA
1136
01:08:27,275 --> 01:08:28,690
IS AROUND 18 MILLION YEARS
1137
01:08:28,725 --> 01:08:30,520
AND THEY MAKE IT
ALL THE WAY TO JAPAN
1138
01:08:30,554 --> 01:08:32,487
WITHIN A PERIOD OF
ABOUT A MILLION YEARS
1139
01:08:32,522 --> 01:08:33,833
AFTER GETTING OUT OF AFRICA.
1140
01:08:45,397 --> 01:08:47,537
UNTIL
RECENTLY, ALL WE KNEW
1141
01:08:47,571 --> 01:08:51,265
OF THOSE ANCIENT ELEPHANT
SPECIES THAT LEFT AFRICA
1142
01:08:51,299 --> 01:08:53,439
WAS FROM A FEW FOSSIL BONES.
1143
01:08:54,751 --> 01:08:58,927
BUT THEN, A DRAMATICALLY
DIFFERENT KIND OF DISCOVERY
1144
01:08:58,962 --> 01:09:00,826
BROUGHT THEM TO LIFE.
1145
01:09:04,933 --> 01:09:06,901
IN THE DESERTS OF ABU DHABI,
1146
01:09:06,935 --> 01:09:10,801
SCIENTISTS DISCOVERED
NOT BONES BUT FOOTPRINTS.
1147
01:09:11,802 --> 01:09:14,702
THEY WERE MADE BY
ANCIENT ELEPHANTS.
1148
01:09:14,736 --> 01:09:19,189
A VIVID RECORD OF THEIR GREAT
MIGRATION OUT OF AFRICA.
1149
01:09:19,603 --> 01:09:20,880
IT'S PHENOMENAL
1150
01:09:20,915 --> 01:09:22,330
BECAUSE WHEN YOU'RE
ACTUALLY ON THE LANDSCAPE,
1151
01:09:22,365 --> 01:09:25,609
IT SEEMS LIKE THE ELEPHANTS
JUST PASSED THERE YESTERDAY,
1152
01:09:25,644 --> 01:09:27,784
BUT WE KNOW GEOLOGICALLY
SPEAKING THAT'S IPOSSIBLE.
1153
01:09:27,818 --> 01:09:29,786
THESE ARE VERY,
VERY OLD SEDIMENTS.
1154
01:09:31,960 --> 01:09:34,446
SO, IT WAS ALMOST
AN AFTERTHOUGHT
1155
01:09:34,480 --> 01:09:37,518
TO IMAGE THE TRACKS
FROM THE AIR.
1156
01:09:37,552 --> 01:09:39,865
AND THEN WE WENT BACK
TO THE HOTEL THAT NIGHT
1157
01:09:39,899 --> 01:09:42,764
AND WE STARTED TO PUT
THE IMAGERY TOGETHER.
1158
01:09:43,765 --> 01:09:47,873
AS WE REALIZED WHAT WE HAD WE
BASICALLY OUR JAWS DROPPED.
1159
01:09:52,809 --> 01:09:55,294
WHAT THEY SAW
WAS THE FOOTPRINTS
1160
01:09:55,329 --> 01:09:59,781
OF AN ENTIRE HERD OF ANCIENT
ELEPHANTS ON THE MOVE,
1161
01:09:59,816 --> 01:10:04,303
A SNAPSHOT IN TIME
OF ELEPHANT BEHAVIOR
1162
01:10:04,338 --> 01:10:06,788
SEVEN MILLION YEARS AGO.
1163
01:10:09,343 --> 01:10:12,760
BACK THEN THIS DESERT
WAS A LUSH SAVANNA.
1164
01:10:15,625 --> 01:10:17,834
THE MUDDY GROUND
AFTER A RAINFALL
1165
01:10:17,868 --> 01:10:21,320
CAPTURED THEIR
FOOTPRINTS PERFECTLY,
1166
01:10:21,355 --> 01:10:25,669
ALL MADE BY ONE OF THE
STRANGEST OF ELEPHANT RELATIVES.
1167
01:10:32,089 --> 01:10:33,919
IT'S PROBABLY 10 MINUTES
1168
01:10:33,953 --> 01:10:35,990
IN THE LIVES OF
THESE INDIVIDUALS,
1169
01:10:36,024 --> 01:10:38,924
THIS HERD THAT WALKED
ACROSS THE LANDSCAPE.
1170
01:10:38,958 --> 01:10:40,822
AND THOSE TEN MINUTES
ARE FOREVER PRESERVED
1171
01:10:40,857 --> 01:10:43,377
IN THESE ROCKS FOR US TO SEE.
1172
01:10:44,378 --> 01:10:47,519
AND IN THAT
10-MINUTE SNAPSHOT,
1173
01:10:47,553 --> 01:10:51,108
FAYSAL CAN SEE ALL THE
DYNAMICS OF THE HERD,
1174
01:10:51,143 --> 01:10:55,112
THE ADULTS AND CALVES,
A SINGLE BULL MALE,
1175
01:10:55,147 --> 01:10:56,942
AND A NUMBER OF FEMALES.
1176
01:10:59,565 --> 01:11:00,773
YEAH, SO WE HAVE,
1177
01:11:00,808 --> 01:11:03,535
IT'S A MINIMUM OF 13
INDIVIDUALS ACTUALLY.
1178
01:11:04,260 --> 01:11:07,642
YOU'RE WALKING ALONG AND
HERE WAS A LARGE INDIVIDUAL,
1179
01:11:07,677 --> 01:11:10,335
THERE WAS PROBABLY
THE MATRIARCH.
1180
01:11:11,370 --> 01:11:13,648
THEY SLOW DOWN, THEY
SPEED UP A LITTLE.
1181
01:11:13,683 --> 01:11:15,616
THERE WAS A SMALLER GUY.
1182
01:11:15,650 --> 01:11:18,066
HE'S ON THE EDGE SO WE'RE
CLEARLY NOT TOO WORRIED
1183
01:11:18,101 --> 01:11:20,828
ABOUT ANY PREDATORS COMING
ALONG ON THIS LANDSCAPE.
1184
01:11:22,761 --> 01:11:26,005
AND THEN, PERHAPS, JUST THE
DAY BEFORE OR THE DAY AFTER,
1185
01:11:26,730 --> 01:11:30,907
WE'VE HAD THE LARGE BULL WHO
ALSO CROSSED THIS LANDSCAPE.
1186
01:11:32,978 --> 01:11:34,566
NOT LONG AFTER FAYSAL
1187
01:11:34,600 --> 01:11:36,809
AND HIS TEAM MADE
THEIR DISCOVERY,
1188
01:11:36,844 --> 01:11:39,778
THEY TOOK BILL
SANDERS TO SEE IT.
1189
01:11:40,882 --> 01:11:43,954
I HAD NO IDEA
WHAT AWAITED ME,
1190
01:11:43,989 --> 01:11:45,646
AND THEN I SAW THEM,
1191
01:11:46,440 --> 01:11:48,545
ALL THE FOOTPRINTS
OF AN ENTIRE HEARD
1192
01:11:48,580 --> 01:11:51,341
GOING ON FOR ABOUT 260 METERS.
1193
01:11:52,411 --> 01:11:57,140
AND YOU CAN SEE BABY
FOOTPRINTS, JUVENILE FOOTPRINTS,
1194
01:11:57,174 --> 01:11:58,590
FEMALE FOOTPRINTS,
1195
01:11:59,280 --> 01:12:03,008
AND THEN ONE GREAT
TRACK OF A BIG BULL MALE
1196
01:12:03,042 --> 01:12:05,873
THAT MUST HAVE COME ALONG
LATER AND CROSSED THAT TRACK
1197
01:12:05,907 --> 01:12:07,771
AND SORT OF CHECKING
OUT THE HERD.
1198
01:12:08,945 --> 01:12:10,843
WE RARELY GET THAT OPPORTUNITY.
1199
01:12:11,706 --> 01:12:14,468
I WORK ON ELEPHANTS,
I LOVE ELEPHANTS,
1200
01:12:14,502 --> 01:12:16,953
AND I'M SEEING THEIR
BEHAVIOR CRYSTALIZED IN TIME,
1201
01:12:16,987 --> 01:12:19,576
ALL THE WAY BACK TO THE VERY
BEGINNINGS OF ELEPHANTS.
1202
01:12:19,611 --> 01:12:21,682
AND I JUST STARTED CRYING.
1203
01:12:22,407 --> 01:12:25,686
AND MY COLLEAGUES
ALL SORT OF APPLAUDED
1204
01:12:25,720 --> 01:12:28,896
AND THEY REALIZED I WAS
NOT CRYING OUT OF SADNESS.
1205
01:12:28,930 --> 01:12:32,658
I WAS CRYING BECAUSE
I WAS ECSTATIC.
1206
01:12:34,798 --> 01:12:36,628
LIKE SKILLED TRACKERS,
1207
01:12:36,662 --> 01:12:39,872
THE SCIENTISTS COULD READ
THE ANCIENT FOOTPRINTS
1208
01:12:39,907 --> 01:12:42,979
AND RECONSTRUCT A
REMARKABLY DETAILED PICTURE
1209
01:12:43,013 --> 01:12:46,120
OF THAT DAY SEVEN
MILLION YEARS AGO.
1210
01:12:47,121 --> 01:12:49,226
WE COULD ESTIMATE
THE ACTUAL SIZE
1211
01:12:49,261 --> 01:12:50,400
OF THESE INDIVIDUALS,
1212
01:12:50,435 --> 01:12:53,092
BASED ON STRIDE LENGTHS
OF MODERN ELEPHANTS,
1213
01:12:53,127 --> 01:12:54,128
WHERE THEIR WEIGHTS ARE KNOWN,
1214
01:12:54,162 --> 01:12:56,164
AND THEIR STRIDE
LENGTHS ARE KNOWN.
1215
01:12:56,199 --> 01:12:59,064
AND THEIR ESTIMATED
WEIGHTS GO FROM,
1216
01:12:59,098 --> 01:13:01,273
A FEW HUNDRED KILOS
FOR THE SMALL ONE,
1217
01:13:01,307 --> 01:13:04,656
UP TO 5,000 KILOS OR SO FOR
THE LARGEST IN THE GROUP
1218
01:13:04,690 --> 01:13:08,522
AND POSSIBLY 6,000 OR SO
FOR THE SOLITARY INDIVIDUAL
1219
01:13:08,556 --> 01:13:10,800
THAT WAS WALKING AT THAT SITE.
1220
01:13:10,834 --> 01:13:14,113
THAT MAKES THEM AS BIG AS
ANY BULL ELEPHANT TODAY.
1221
01:13:15,839 --> 01:13:17,807
FROM FOSSILS FOUND NEARBY,
1222
01:13:17,841 --> 01:13:21,569
WE KNOW THAT THEY WERE
MAGNIFICENT ANIMALS,
1223
01:13:21,604 --> 01:13:26,609
FOUR-TUSKED BEASTS CALLED STEGOTETREBELODONS.
1224
01:13:32,891 --> 01:13:35,238
AND HERE YOU ARE,
YOU'RE ON THIS LANDSCAPE
1225
01:13:35,272 --> 01:13:38,172
AND YOU CAN IMAGINE THEM
HAVING JUST BEEN HERE,
1226
01:13:38,206 --> 01:13:39,449
LIKE IT WAS YESTERDAY.
1227
01:13:40,864 --> 01:13:42,038
OVER GENERATIONS,
1228
01:13:42,072 --> 01:13:45,317
THEIR ANCESTORS MADE
THE JOURNEY FROM AFRICA,
1229
01:13:45,351 --> 01:13:47,561
THOUSANDS OF MILES AWAY.
1230
01:13:50,011 --> 01:13:52,186
THEY'RE
EXTINCT, THEY'RE LONG GONE,
1231
01:13:52,220 --> 01:13:54,878
AND THEY HAVEN'T JUST LEFT
US THEIR BONES AND TEETH.
1232
01:13:55,672 --> 01:13:57,985
THIS IS AN IMPRINT
OF THEIR SOCIETY.
1233
01:14:02,679 --> 01:14:05,164
THE DISCOVERIES
IN ABU DHABI SHOW
1234
01:14:05,199 --> 01:14:07,650
THAT BY SEVEN MILLION YEARS AGO,
1235
01:14:07,684 --> 01:14:12,689
THE SOCIAL BEHAVIOR OF
ELEPHANTS HAD ALREADY EVOLVED.
1236
01:14:13,034 --> 01:14:16,210
THEIR CLOSE FAMILY
BONDS HAVE BEEN A KEY
1237
01:14:16,244 --> 01:14:19,593
TO THE SUCCESS OF
ELEPHANTS FOR GENERATIONS.
1238
01:14:20,525 --> 01:14:22,561
EVEN THOUGH STEGOTETREBELODONS
1239
01:14:22,596 --> 01:14:25,219
DISAPPEARED A FEW
MILLION YEARS AGO,
1240
01:14:25,253 --> 01:14:28,153
THEIR DESCENDENTS AND
OTHER ELEPHANT SPECIES
1241
01:14:28,187 --> 01:14:30,673
SOON POPULATED
MUCH OF THE GLOBE.
1242
01:14:34,366 --> 01:14:36,126
SOME, LIKE THE MAMMOTHS,
1243
01:14:36,161 --> 01:14:39,613
ADAPTED TO THE COLD OF
SIBERIA AND NORTH AMERICA.
1244
01:14:40,786 --> 01:14:42,823
OTHERS, LIKE THE GOMPHOTHERES,
1245
01:14:42,857 --> 01:14:45,653
HEADED FOR THE WARMER
CLIMES OF SOUTHERN ASIA
1246
01:14:45,688 --> 01:14:46,965
AND CENTRAL AMERICA.
1247
01:14:49,933 --> 01:14:52,764
IT HAD TAKEN 60 MILLION YEARS
1248
01:14:52,798 --> 01:14:54,800
BUT THE ELEPHANT
LINEAGE HAD BECOME
1249
01:14:54,835 --> 01:14:57,251
ONE OF THE MOST
SUCCESSFUL ON THE PLANET.
1250
01:15:00,219 --> 01:15:02,394
JUST 50,000 YEARS AGO,
1251
01:15:02,428 --> 01:15:04,983
ELEPHANT SPECIES WERE
ON ALL CONTINENTS
1252
01:15:05,017 --> 01:15:07,951
EXCEPT AUSTRALIA, ANTARCTICA,
AND SOUTH AMERICA.
1253
01:15:11,886 --> 01:15:13,681
SO, WHAT HAPPENED TO THEM ALL?
1254
01:15:17,236 --> 01:15:20,412
A LONG DEBATE AMONG MY
COLLEAGUES IN MY FIELD HAS BEEN,
1255
01:15:20,446 --> 01:15:21,655
WHAT ARE THE AGENCIES
1256
01:15:21,689 --> 01:15:24,243
FOR THE EXTINCTION OF THE
ELEPHANTS THAT WE SEE,
1257
01:15:24,278 --> 01:15:26,142
FOR EXAMPLE MAMMOTHS
AND MASTODONS?
1258
01:15:29,041 --> 01:15:32,044
ONE HYPOTHESIS
IS CLIMATE CHANGE.
1259
01:15:33,252 --> 01:15:35,289
AT THE END OF THE LAST ICE AGE,
1260
01:15:35,323 --> 01:15:38,810
10,000 YEARS AGO,
THE WORLD WARMED.
1261
01:15:40,190 --> 01:15:44,436
THE COLD-ADAPTED ELEPHANTS
OF SIBERIA AND NORTH AMERICA
1262
01:15:44,470 --> 01:15:45,989
JUST COULDN'T DEAL WITH IT.
1263
01:15:48,992 --> 01:15:50,304
IN THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE,
1264
01:15:50,338 --> 01:15:52,064
IN NORTHERN LATITUDES,
1265
01:15:52,099 --> 01:15:54,722
YOU HAVE ALL THIS GLACIATION
1266
01:15:54,757 --> 01:15:57,276
AND THESE CHANGES ARE
HAPPENING VERY, VERY RAPIDLY.
1267
01:15:58,139 --> 01:16:00,210
BUT FOR
MILLIONS OF YEARS,
1268
01:16:00,245 --> 01:16:02,109
THE MAMMOTHS AND MASTODONS
1269
01:16:02,143 --> 01:16:05,906
MANAGED TO WEATHER
SIMILAR CLIMATE CHANGES.
1270
01:16:05,940 --> 01:16:08,011
WHAT WAS DIFFERENT
ABOUT THE WARMING
1271
01:16:08,046 --> 01:16:10,186
AT THE END OF THE LAST ICE AGE?
1272
01:16:13,085 --> 01:16:16,088
BILL BELIEVES IT WAS
OUR OWN ANCESTORS
1273
01:16:16,123 --> 01:16:18,332
WHO TIPPED THE BALANCE.
1274
01:16:18,366 --> 01:16:21,369
SO WE SEE THE
GREAT SITES IN EURASIA
1275
01:16:21,404 --> 01:16:24,441
WHERE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES
LIKE 10,000 YEARS AGO
1276
01:16:24,476 --> 01:16:27,237
AND 50,000 YEARS AGO
AND 60,000 YEARS AGO
1277
01:16:27,272 --> 01:16:31,069
WERE SLAUGHTERING THESE
ELEPHANTS IN GREAT NUMBERS.
1278
01:16:31,103 --> 01:16:33,899
THERE IS A TREMENDOUS
PREDATION PRESSURE.
1279
01:16:33,934 --> 01:16:35,832
AND IMAGINE IF YOU'VE
GOT PREDATION PRESSURE
1280
01:16:35,867 --> 01:16:37,800
HITTING YOU ON ONE SIDE
1281
01:16:37,834 --> 01:16:40,009
AND NOW YOU'VE GOT
THIS CLIMATE CHANGE,
1282
01:16:40,043 --> 01:16:41,458
AND WHAT IT DOES
TO THE LANDSCAPE,
1283
01:16:41,493 --> 01:16:44,634
WHAT IT DOES TO THE PLANTS
AND THE AVAILABLE RESOURCES.
1284
01:16:50,778 --> 01:16:52,884
BY 4,000 YEARS AGO,
1285
01:16:52,918 --> 01:16:56,404
THE WORLD WAS LEFT WITH
JUST THE AFRICAN, ASIAN,
1286
01:16:56,439 --> 01:16:58,855
AND FOREST ELEPHANTS
WE KNOW TODAY.
1287
01:16:59,580 --> 01:17:03,066
AND NOW THESE ARE
UNDER THREAT AS WELL.
1288
01:17:05,379 --> 01:17:09,210
THIS TIME IT HAS NOTHING TO
DO WITH THE END OF AN ICE AGE,
1289
01:17:10,764 --> 01:17:12,075
JUST US.
1290
01:17:17,115 --> 01:17:22,292
IN 1800, THERE WERE AN
ESTIMATED 25 MILLION ELEPHANTS.
1291
01:17:23,328 --> 01:17:26,538
TODAY THERE ARE
LESS THAN A MILLION
1292
01:17:26,572 --> 01:17:28,851
AND THE NUMBER IS FALLING FAST,
1293
01:17:28,885 --> 01:17:30,784
THANKS TO HABITAT LOSS
1294
01:17:30,818 --> 01:17:33,994
AND THE RELENTLESS SLAUGHTER
OF ELEPHANTS FOR IVORY.
1295
01:17:41,104 --> 01:17:44,694
POACHING NOW IS VERY
MECHANIZED, IT'S INDUSTRIAL.
1296
01:17:45,626 --> 01:17:49,803
IN SOME PLACES, WE'RE LOSING
1,000 ELEPHANTS IN A MONTH.
1297
01:17:49,837 --> 01:17:52,219
IT'S BEING DONE WITH
NOT JUST WEAPONS,
1298
01:17:52,253 --> 01:17:57,120
BUT WITH AIRCRAFT, TRAINS,
AND TRUCKS, AND SHIPS
1299
01:17:57,155 --> 01:17:59,916
TO MOVE THE IVORY OUT
OF AFRICAN VERY QUICKLY.
1300
01:18:01,469 --> 01:18:03,920
THE TUSKS THAT
HELPED ELEPHANTS SURVIVE
1301
01:18:03,955 --> 01:18:07,924
FOR MILLIONS OF YEARS
HAVE BECOME A LIABILITY.
1302
01:18:07,959 --> 01:18:12,964
IT'S A NEW KIND OF EVOLUTIONARY
PRESSURE, HUMAN GENERATED.
1303
01:18:13,205 --> 01:18:15,898
AND IN AFRICA, IT'S
CAUSING ELEPHANTS
1304
01:18:15,932 --> 01:18:18,383
TO CHANGE ALMOST OVERNIGHT.
1305
01:18:20,557 --> 01:18:22,456
OVER THE MILLENNIA,
ELEPHANTS HAVE EVOLVED
1306
01:18:22,490 --> 01:18:24,838
TO HAVE THESE HUGE TUSKS,
1307
01:18:24,872 --> 01:18:26,046
BECAUSE THE MOST
SUCCESSFUL ELEPHANTS
1308
01:18:26,080 --> 01:18:28,048
ARE THE ONES THAT HAD
THE BIGGEST TUSKS.
1309
01:18:28,082 --> 01:18:29,981
BUT OVER THE LAST
FEW HUNDRED YEARS,
1310
01:18:30,015 --> 01:18:32,949
US HUMAN BEINGS HAVE
BEEN KILLING ELEPHANTS
1311
01:18:32,984 --> 01:18:34,054
FOR THOSE TUSKS.
1312
01:18:34,088 --> 01:18:35,400
THERE ARE SOME
POPULATIONS OF ELEPHANTS
1313
01:18:35,434 --> 01:18:36,608
WHO HAVE VERY SMALL TUSKS,
1314
01:18:36,642 --> 01:18:39,438
BECAUSE POACHERS ARE
SELECTIVELY REMOVING
1315
01:18:39,473 --> 01:18:41,233
ELEPHANTS WITH BIG TUSKS.
1316
01:18:41,268 --> 01:18:43,477
AND SO, THE ONLY FEMALES
THAT GET TO BREED
1317
01:18:43,511 --> 01:18:45,997
ARE THE ONES WHICH
HAVE VERY SMALL TUSKS.
1318
01:18:46,031 --> 01:18:48,551
AND SO YOU INCREASINGLY
SEE TUSKLESSNESS
1319
01:18:48,585 --> 01:18:50,622
IN SOME OF THESE
ELEPHANT POPULATIONS.
1320
01:18:50,656 --> 01:18:56,628
IT WOULD BE SUCH A TRAGEDY
IF THESE MAGNIFICENT ANIMALS
1321
01:18:56,662 --> 01:19:00,045
LOST THE ONE THING
THAT MAKES THEM,
1322
01:19:00,080 --> 01:19:02,151
YOU KNOW, SO
UNIQUE, THEIR TUSKS.
1323
01:19:04,463 --> 01:19:08,502
EVEN AS THEY ADAPT,
ELEPHANTS ARE AT RISK.
1324
01:19:09,883 --> 01:19:12,092
LIKE SO MANY OTHER CREATURES,
1325
01:19:12,126 --> 01:19:15,751
THEY NOW FACE A NEW
ERA OF EXTINCTION.
1326
01:19:19,478 --> 01:19:23,828
EVERYWHERE THE NATURAL
WORLD IS BEING TRANSFORMED.
1327
01:19:34,217 --> 01:19:36,116
OUR OWN LINEAGE HAS BECOME
1328
01:19:36,150 --> 01:19:39,947
THE PLANET'S DOMINANT
EVOLUTIONARY FORCE,
1329
01:19:39,982 --> 01:19:43,571
SHAPING THE WEB OF LIFE
THAT EXISTS ALL AROUND US.
1330
01:19:45,988 --> 01:19:49,060
THIS ONE RECENTLY
ARRIVED SPECIES
1331
01:19:49,094 --> 01:19:51,234
IS NOW THE WORLDWIDE PRESENCE
1332
01:19:51,269 --> 01:19:53,512
TO WHICH ALL OTHERS MUST ADAPT.
1333
01:19:55,238 --> 01:19:57,344
OUR IMPACT IS SO HUGE
1334
01:19:57,378 --> 01:20:00,105
THAT OUR ERA HAS BEEN
GIVEN ITS OWN NAME,
1335
01:20:00,968 --> 01:20:05,490
THE ANTHROPOCENE,
THE AGE OF HUMANS.
1336
01:20:09,287 --> 01:20:13,360
IT HAS SEEN THE EXTINCTION
RATE AMONG NATURAL SPECIES SOAR
1337
01:20:13,394 --> 01:20:17,260
TO HUNDREDS OF TIMES WHAT
IT WAS BEFORE OUR ARRIVAL.
1338
01:20:20,229 --> 01:20:24,026
AS SCIENTISTS RACE TO CHART
THE PLANETARY CHANGES,
1339
01:20:24,060 --> 01:20:27,132
THEY CAN LOOK BACK AT
LESSONS FROM DEEP TIME.
1340
01:20:31,205 --> 01:20:33,104
THEY'RE OBSERVING
MANY OF THE THINGS
1341
01:20:33,138 --> 01:20:35,900
THAT HAPPENED IN
EARLIER EXTINCTIONS,
1342
01:20:36,728 --> 01:20:41,008
RISING CO2 LEVELS LEADING TO
ACIDIFICATION OF THE OCEANS
1343
01:20:41,043 --> 01:20:42,941
AND RAPID CLIMATE CHANGE,
1344
01:20:45,219 --> 01:20:46,876
HABITAT DESTRUCTION.
1345
01:20:51,294 --> 01:20:53,262
MANY BELIEVE WE ARE WITNESSING
1346
01:20:53,296 --> 01:20:57,473
OUR PLANET'S SIXTH
MASS EXTINCTION,
1347
01:20:57,507 --> 01:21:01,339
BUT THE FIRST ONE CAUSED
BY A SINGLE SPECIES.
1348
01:21:02,098 --> 01:21:05,895
LIKE OTHERS, IT WILL RESET
THE EVOLUTIONARY CLOCK.
1349
01:21:06,723 --> 01:21:08,104
WE JUST DON'T KNOW HOW.
1350
01:21:10,589 --> 01:21:15,146
TODAY WHEN WE LIVE IN A
WORLD WHERE HUMAN POPULATIONS
1351
01:21:15,180 --> 01:21:18,183
ARE GRADUALLY CHANGING
THE FACE OF THE GLOBE
1352
01:21:18,218 --> 01:21:19,667
BY TURNING NATURAL ENVIRONMENTS
1353
01:21:19,702 --> 01:21:21,497
INTO ARTIFICIAL ENVIRONMENTS,
1354
01:21:21,531 --> 01:21:23,706
BY POLLUTION AND MANY OTHER WAYS
1355
01:21:23,740 --> 01:21:26,536
OF INTERFERING WITH
NATURAL SYSTEMS,
1356
01:21:26,571 --> 01:21:27,848
WE ARE VERY MUCH CONFRONTED
1357
01:21:27,883 --> 01:21:31,300
WITH THE QUESTION OF
EVOLUTION AND EXTINCTION.
1358
01:21:31,334 --> 01:21:33,716
YOU CAN'T HAVE EVOLUTION
WITHOUT EXTINCTION,
1359
01:21:33,750 --> 01:21:35,718
BUT EXTINCTION
REALLY COMPLICATES
1360
01:21:35,752 --> 01:21:37,893
OUR EFFORTS TO GET
THE BIG PICTURE.
1361
01:21:39,549 --> 01:21:42,035
WE NOW KNOW
THAT MASS EXTINCTIONS
1362
01:21:42,069 --> 01:21:44,313
ARE AN ENGINE OF EVOLUTION,
1363
01:21:44,347 --> 01:21:46,108
CLEARING OUT ENVIRONMENTS,
1364
01:21:46,142 --> 01:21:49,042
MAKING ROOM FOR NEW
SPECIES TO EVOLVE,
1365
01:21:49,766 --> 01:21:53,909
BUT IN THE PAST, THEY HAVE
USUALLY TAKEN MILLIONS OF YEARS.
1366
01:21:56,221 --> 01:22:00,674
THIS ONE IS HAPPENING FAST,
IN A MATTER OF GENERATIONS.
1367
01:22:02,331 --> 01:22:04,540
VIEWED THROUGH THE
LENS OF DEEP TIME,
1368
01:22:04,574 --> 01:22:06,473
THAT IS A NANOSECOND,
1369
01:22:07,439 --> 01:22:10,995
TOO FAST FOR MANY
LIVING THINGS TO ADAPT.
1370
01:22:15,206 --> 01:22:18,934
BUT MAYBE NOT TOO FAST FOR
US TO MAKE A DIFFERENCE.
1371
01:22:21,453 --> 01:22:26,458
CROCS HAVE LIVED ON EARTH
FOR ALMOST 230 MILLION YEARS.
1372
01:22:27,597 --> 01:22:31,394
THEY'VE SURVIVED CATACLYSMIC
EXTINCTION EVENTS,
1373
01:22:32,844 --> 01:22:34,225
BUT TODAY,
1374
01:22:34,259 --> 01:22:39,471
FIVE OF THE 14 CROCODILE SPECIES
ARE CRITICALLY ENDANGERED.
1375
01:22:41,439 --> 01:22:43,165
MOST OF THE
LIVING CROCODILIANS
1376
01:22:43,199 --> 01:22:46,375
WERE ON THE VERGE OF
EXTINCTION BY THE 1970'S.
1377
01:22:46,409 --> 01:22:49,516
WE WERE ON THE VERGE
OF LOSING ALL OF THEM
1378
01:22:49,550 --> 01:22:51,656
WHEN WE PUT IN PLACE PROTECTION.
1379
01:22:54,693 --> 01:22:56,419
PROTECTIONS
HAVE HELPED.
1380
01:22:58,387 --> 01:23:02,770
IN AUSTRALIA, BOTH FRESH AND
SALTWATER CROCS HAVE REBOUNDED
1381
01:23:02,805 --> 01:23:06,015
THANKS TO STRONG STEPS LIKE
RESTRICTIONS ON HUNTING.
1382
01:23:09,432 --> 01:23:13,436
BUT WHAT ABOUT THE OTHER GREAT
SURVIVORS OF DEEP HISTORY?
1383
01:23:14,610 --> 01:23:18,027
10,000 SPECIES OF BIRD
STILL COVER THE GLOBE.
1384
01:23:19,891 --> 01:23:21,617
SOME HAVE ADAPTED TO CITIES
1385
01:23:21,651 --> 01:23:24,620
WHERE THEY LIVE BESIDE
US IN SEEMING HARMONY.
1386
01:23:26,311 --> 01:23:28,382
BUT THAT'S NOT THE WHOLE STORY.
1387
01:23:30,833 --> 01:23:35,355
WE ARE HUGELY
IMPACTING BIRD EVOLUTION.
1388
01:23:35,389 --> 01:23:39,635
THIS IS IN HABITAT LOSS,
CONSUMPTION OR KILLING,
1389
01:23:39,669 --> 01:23:42,500
POISONS, THE USE OF
TOXINS IN OUR ENVIRONMENT.
1390
01:23:46,159 --> 01:23:49,334
WITH 40 PERCENT OF
BIRD SPECIES IN DECLINE,
1391
01:23:49,369 --> 01:23:51,336
THERE'S REASON TO WORRY,
1392
01:23:51,371 --> 01:23:53,614
BUT ALSO REASON TO HOPE.
1393
01:23:55,823 --> 01:23:59,310
WE MANAGED TO TURN THINGS
AROUND FOR ICONIC SPECIES
1394
01:23:59,344 --> 01:24:02,244
LIKE THE BALD EAGLE
AND CALIFORNIA CONDOR.
1395
01:24:03,900 --> 01:24:07,456
AND INNOVATIVE PROGRAMS
SHOW THAT MORE IS POSSIBLE.
1396
01:24:08,802 --> 01:24:14,187
IN 1974 ONLY FOUR MAURITIUS
KESTRELS WERE LEFT IN THE WILD.
1397
01:24:15,774 --> 01:24:19,261
TODAY THERE ARE A
HUNDRED TIMES AS MANY,
1398
01:24:19,295 --> 01:24:22,471
THANKS TO PREDATOR CONTROL
AND CAPTIVE BREEDING.
1399
01:24:27,510 --> 01:24:30,203
OCEAN CREATURES
NEED PROTECTION TOO.
1400
01:24:31,100 --> 01:24:34,862
IT TOOK 50 MILLION YEARS
FOR WHALES TO BECOME
1401
01:24:34,897 --> 01:24:38,142
THE WONDROUS GIANTS OF
THE DEEP WE KNOW TODAY.
1402
01:24:42,353 --> 01:24:44,217
BUT IN JUST TWO CENTURIES,
1403
01:24:44,251 --> 01:24:46,288
INDUSTRIAL WHALING
BROUGHT MANY OF THEM
1404
01:24:46,322 --> 01:24:48,117
TO THE BRINK OF EXTINCTION.
1405
01:24:49,705 --> 01:24:51,672
IN THE 20TH CENTURY ALONE,
1406
01:24:51,707 --> 01:24:54,434
ALMOST THREE MILLION
WHALES WERE SLAUGHTERED
1407
01:24:57,437 --> 01:24:59,508
IT'S UNTHINKABLE NOW,
1408
01:24:59,542 --> 01:25:03,374
THAT WE EXPLOITED
WHALES TO THE EXTENT OF,
1409
01:25:03,408 --> 01:25:06,446
IN THE CASE OF HUMPBACKS,
DRIVING DOWN THEIR POPULATION
1410
01:25:06,480 --> 01:25:09,587
TO 10 PERCENT OF WHAT
THEY WERE GLOBALLY.
1411
01:25:09,621 --> 01:25:11,934
THEY WERE ALMOST
PUSHED OVER THE EDGE.
1412
01:25:11,968 --> 01:25:13,936
WE ONLY STOPPED WHALING
1413
01:25:13,970 --> 01:25:17,353
ON NORTHERN VANCOUVER
ISLAND IN 1967.
1414
01:25:17,388 --> 01:25:20,287
HUMPBACKS WE STOPPED IN 1965.
1415
01:25:20,322 --> 01:25:24,360
SO WE THOUGHT OF THEM
SO VERY DIFFERENTLY.
1416
01:25:24,395 --> 01:25:26,673
WE SAW THEM AS A RESOURCE.
1417
01:25:27,363 --> 01:25:29,848
BUT WITH HUMPBACKS WE
HAVE A SECOND CHANCE.
1418
01:25:33,058 --> 01:25:36,476
WHILE SOME WHALES
ARE CRITICALLY ENDANGERED,
1419
01:25:36,510 --> 01:25:39,306
WHALING BANS HAVE
MADE A DIFFERENCE.
1420
01:25:40,894 --> 01:25:42,620
HUMPBACKS HAVE REBOUNDED,
1421
01:25:44,553 --> 01:25:48,695
AND BLUE WHALE POPULATIONS,
WHICH FELL TO JUST 1,500,
1422
01:25:48,729 --> 01:25:51,146
SEEM TO BE SLOWLY INCREASING.
1423
01:25:54,942 --> 01:25:58,291
ONE OF THE MANY
THINGS THAT THE WHALES DO
1424
01:25:58,325 --> 01:26:01,708
IS THEY REMIND US
HOW CONNECTED WE ARE,
1425
01:26:01,742 --> 01:26:04,780
AND OF OUR CAPACITY FOR CHANGE.
1426
01:26:08,059 --> 01:26:09,094
AROUND THE PLANET,
1427
01:26:09,129 --> 01:26:12,374
OTHERS ARE HEEDING
THAT REMINDER,
1428
01:26:12,408 --> 01:26:13,616
COMMITTING THEMSELVES
1429
01:26:13,651 --> 01:26:16,757
TO PROTECT ENDANGERED
ANIMALS AND PLACES.
1430
01:26:19,657 --> 01:26:22,487
IN KENYA, PAULA KAHUMBU ADMIRES
1431
01:26:22,522 --> 01:26:26,457
ONE OF THE LAST TRUE
GIANTS LEFT ON EARTH,
1432
01:26:26,491 --> 01:26:28,976
A TUSKER NAMED TOLSTOY.
1433
01:26:33,395 --> 01:26:37,364
I FEEL VERY HUMBLED TO
BE ABLE TO MEET TOLSTOY.
1434
01:26:37,399 --> 01:26:40,574
HE IS A GIANT OF GIANTS.
1435
01:26:40,609 --> 01:26:42,990
HE'S NOT JUST A BIG TUSKER,
HE'S A SUPER TUSKER.
1436
01:26:43,681 --> 01:26:46,753
THERE ARE VERY, VERY FEW
ELEPHANTS OF THAT SIZE
1437
01:26:46,787 --> 01:26:50,066
WITH TUSKS OF THAT
LENGTH LEFT IN THE WORLD.
1438
01:26:50,101 --> 01:26:52,759
YOU KNOW, WHEN WHEN
YOU'RE WITH TOLSTOY,
1439
01:26:52,793 --> 01:26:56,625
IT'S ONE OF THE BIGGEST RUSHES
YOU GET IS THAT I'M ALIVE.
1440
01:26:56,659 --> 01:26:59,041
RIGHT, YOU JUST FEEL
THIS SENSE OF LIFE.
1441
01:26:59,075 --> 01:27:01,388
IT GIVES YOU
GOOSEBUMPS JUST TO KNOW
1442
01:27:01,423 --> 01:27:03,114
THAT THIS ELEPHANT IS
AWARE OF YOUR PRESENCE,
1443
01:27:03,148 --> 01:27:05,047
AND YOU'RE TINY AND HE'S HUGE.
1444
01:27:05,081 --> 01:27:06,290
IT'S, HE'S BEAUTIFUL.
1445
01:27:06,324 --> 01:27:07,981
IT'S A JUST A MOST
INCREDIBLE EXPERIENCE.
1446
01:27:10,846 --> 01:27:12,019
TO KNOW THAT TOLSTOY,
1447
01:27:12,054 --> 01:27:14,677
IS THE PRODUCT OF AN
EVOLUTIONARY JOURNEY
1448
01:27:14,712 --> 01:27:17,439
THAT HAS BEEN GOING ON FOR EONS
1449
01:27:17,473 --> 01:27:19,544
ONLY MAKES HIM MORE PRECIOUS.
1450
01:27:20,821 --> 01:27:23,548
AND TOLSTOY IS NOT ALONE.
1451
01:27:27,138 --> 01:27:30,624
CROCODILES AND BIRDS,
WHALES AND ELEPHANTS
1452
01:27:30,659 --> 01:27:33,972
ARE JUST FOUR LIFE
FORMS AMONG MILLIONS.
1453
01:27:34,628 --> 01:27:37,355
THE TREE OF LIFE IS VAST,
1454
01:27:37,390 --> 01:27:40,324
ENCOMPASSING EVERYTHING
THAT HAS EVER LIVED.
1455
01:27:44,569 --> 01:27:48,677
WHAT WILL ITS BRANCHES LOOK
LIKE AFTER THE AGE OF HUMANS?
1456
01:27:49,988 --> 01:27:52,681
THE ANSWER IS UP TO US.
107915
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