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[ Narrator] You hold
the entire history of the universe...
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in the palm of your hand.
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00:00:13,181 --> 00:00:16,267
- [ Beeping ]
- Every time you make a cell phone call...
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00:00:16,768 --> 00:00:19,354
you're connecting to
the big bang...
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00:00:20,605 --> 00:00:25,527
the first humans,
and even the sinking of the Titanic.
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- [ Klaxon Blaring ]
- Events that span billions of years...
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linked... by big history.
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We think of history as a timeline...
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a series of events stretching
a few thousand years into the past.
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It's time to think bigger.
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Instead of a line,
imagine a web of infinite connections...
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interacting over billions of years...
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00:00:52,053 --> 00:00:55,390
linked together to create
everything we've ever known-
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00:00:55,473 --> 00:00:59,728
our universe, our planet...
and us.
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History as we know it
is about to get big.
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By the year 2014, there will be
more cell phones on Earth than people.
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Today, six billion phones
link us together...
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into a single, pulsing network
of humanity.
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Traditional history tells us...
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that centuries of innovation
lead to the cell phone...
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an iconic technology
of the digital age.
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But to big history,
the phone is a tool...
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that amplifies the things
that make us human.
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Language, communication...
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memory.
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It's a time machine...
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00:01:51,863 --> 00:01:56,159
that decodes
the secrets of how the mind works.
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00:02:03,875 --> 00:02:06,211
The first phone numbers
are easy to remember...
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ranging from a few digits
to six or seven digits long.
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But as the number of phones grows,
so does the phone number...
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to as many as ten digits.
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And that poses a surprising challenge
to the human mind.
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[ Man ] Human beings definitely have
a limit on their short-term memory.
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Beyond about five or seven things,
we just can't remember it that well.
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Things really fall apart.
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[ Narrator]
Why does our memory have this limit?
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Big history connects us...
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to a time when our brains are
figuring out what and how to remember.
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We are now in prehistoric Africa...
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00:03:08,064 --> 00:03:11,734
where the brain of these early humans
is now full-size...
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with memory power equal to our own.
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They don't need to
remember phone numbers.
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But they do need to memorize directions
to the best hunting grounds.
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A list of information,
recalled in a specific sequence.
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Two hundred millennia later,
our working memory hasn't changed much...
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because the brain still works
in the same way.
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L! encodes each item on a list,
or each digit in a phone number...
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00:03:57,655 --> 00:04:00,533
in a different cluster of brain cells.
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As we recall each digit,
our brain fires up that cluster...
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00:04:06,414 --> 00:04:09,459
but it also has to suppress
all the others...
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or the number will be scrambled
in our minds.
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So when we want to remember
a three-digit number in the right order...
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we call up one cluster of cells
for each digit...
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and suppress the other two.
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For a number with ten digits...
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we need to suppress
nine memory clusters at a time.
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[ Kean ] When you have to
remember things in order...
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each thing you add to the list
really taxes your brain a lot.
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It gets exponentially harder
to remember things at every step.
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[ Narrator] It takes 50 times more
brainpower to remember 10 items in order...
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than it does to remember three.
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Take a look at this sequence
of 10 numbers.
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Can you remember them in order...
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when we take them away?
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Most people won't remember
more than five or six digits.
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[Woman ] if we look at this from
a big history point of view-
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Our hunting and gathering
ancestors...
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could probably keep track
of so many issues...
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say, the locations
of so many different resources.
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In today's world, we've simply
replaced that same suite of knowledge...
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00:05:33,710 --> 00:05:36,713
with, say, basic phone number
information.
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[ Narrator] So if our brain evolves
to memorize five or six things...
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how do we get it
to remember 10?
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Turn 10 bits of information
into three.
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It's called chunking...
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and it's the reason your phone number
looks the way it does today.
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[ Man ]
it's three, then three, then four.
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That's a very simple
selection of instructions...
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just put out in numerical order.
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00:06:06,117 --> 00:06:09,162
It's the same way as having
a hunter-gatherer mind-set...
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of cross river, climb up hill,
overlook hunting path.
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It's very simple.
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[ Narrator] So the way
we remember phone numbers...
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links us to our prehistoric past.
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[ Beeping ]
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- The way we dial them-
- [ Ringing ]
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Reveals another unique aspect
of our evolution.
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[ Beeping ]
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Big history connects back
to a new age of technology.
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It's the late 1950s in America...
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and the country's top
technology facility...
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AT& T's Bell Laboratories...
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00:06:59,128 --> 00:07:04,008
is looking to update the dial of this,
the rotary telephone...
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00:07:05,384 --> 00:07:08,012
with buttons you can press.
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00:07:11,182 --> 00:07:14,602
But what's the best layout
for the dial pad?
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00:07:14,685 --> 00:07:17,939
Engineers look
to a new field of science...
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called human factors engineering.
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It's based on a simple idea...
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that evolution refines how
the different parts of our bodies work-
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our memory, our heads, our eyes.
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So our most efficient tools
are designed with that in mind.
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Human evolution takes millions of years.
I mean, just why fight it?
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Why don't we just
have a machine that conforms to it?
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The engineers test
dozens of different options...
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00:07:55,977 --> 00:08:00,398
looking for a layout that lets humans dial
with the most speed and accuracy.
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00:08:02,900 --> 00:08:06,654
There's horseshoes.
There's circles. There's crosses.
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00:08:06,737 --> 00:08:10,324
The numbers are arranged
from bottom to top, top to bottom.
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00:08:10,408 --> 00:08:13,244
They're arranged left to right,
right to left.
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00:08:13,327 --> 00:08:15,705
They're trying out
every different layout they can.
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[Chattering ]
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[ Narrator] One pattern proves to be
very intuitive to human hands and minds.
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It becomes the standard dial pad
on phones around the world.
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[ Beeping ]
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Keys that dial more than
200 billion phone calls every day-
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a vast web of worldwide connections...
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that are made possible...
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because of a titanic disaster.
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Big history connects events
across billions of years...
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to give us a new perspective.
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00:09:01,375 --> 00:09:07,840
It reveals that the tools we build reflect how
our brains decode the world around us...
121
00:09:12,053 --> 00:09:14,931
and that an everyday gadget
like the cell phone...
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puts the power of the big bang...
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in our pockets.
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Big history connects back to a disaster
unfolding off the coast of Italy.
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00:09:36,494 --> 00:09:41,374
The massive, almost' 7, 000 fool long
cruise ship, Costa Concordia...
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00:09:41,457 --> 00:09:43,251
has struck a rock...
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00:09:43,334 --> 00:09:45,628
and is threatening
to topple into the sea.
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[ Man On P.A. ] Ladies and gentlemen,
your attention please.
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The situation is under control.
Please remain calm.
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00:09:50,508 --> 00:09:52,760
[ Narrator]
The passengers head for the lifeboats.
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Passengers like Lynn Kaelin.
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[ Chattering In Italian ]
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00:10:04,563 --> 00:10:06,482
[ Narrator]
Fearing for her life...
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00:10:06,565 --> 00:10:11,696
Lynn wants to reach out to her husband,
5000 miles a way in Seattle...
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00:10:11,779 --> 00:10:13,239
to say good-bye-
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00:10:14,407 --> 00:10:15,449
[ Phone Beeps]
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00:10:15,533 --> 00:10:17,660
To do this, her voice
will have to ride a wave...
138
00:10:17,743 --> 00:10:21,205
that links her back
to the birth of the universe...
139
00:10:23,666 --> 00:10:27,211
and to another shipwreck
100 years earlier.
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00:10:34,218 --> 00:10:36,012
Human vocal cords produce sound...
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00:10:36,095 --> 00:10:39,348
by disturbing the molecules
in the air around them.
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00:10:39,432 --> 00:10:41,058
Iceberg straight ahead!
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The molecules begin to vibrate in a
distinct pattern known as a sound wave.
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00:10:52,862 --> 00:10:55,239
- Engine, full stop.
- [ Bell Rings ]
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00:10:55,323 --> 00:10:59,452
[ Narrator] The farthest a human voice
can travel is about 600 feet...
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00:10:59,535 --> 00:11:02,580
before the sound wave
runs out of energy.
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00:11:03,622 --> 00:11:07,043
If we want to communicate
over longer distances...
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00:11:08,002 --> 00:11:10,546
our voices have to hitch a ride...
149
00:11:10,629 --> 00:11:12,673
on another type of wave...
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00:11:12,757 --> 00:11:16,761
that relies on a force
almost as old the universe.
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00:11:19,180 --> 00:11:24,727
Big history brings in astrophysics to
connect us back to the beginning of time.
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00:11:36,155 --> 00:11:38,824
[ Explosion ]
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00:11:40,117 --> 00:11:42,286
The big bang-
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00:11:42,370 --> 00:11:47,333
The birth of all the matter and energy
that will ever exist in the universe...
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00:11:48,167 --> 00:11:50,961
and the forces
that govern how it all works.
156
00:11:53,589 --> 00:11:55,508
[ Man ]
The forces of nature, we know now...
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00:11:55,591 --> 00:11:58,177
began to distinguish themselves
and separate out.
158
00:11:58,260 --> 00:12:00,638
One of the forces that resulted
from that process-
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00:12:01,806 --> 00:12:03,933
is electromagnetism.
160
00:12:08,562 --> 00:12:11,482
Electromagnetism
gives sound a way to travel...
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that's more powerful than air molecules
bumping into each other.
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00:12:16,946 --> 00:12:18,906
Radio waves.
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00:12:18,989 --> 00:12:20,449
These waves are transmitted...
164
00:12:20,533 --> 00:12:23,619
by the vibration of electric
and magnetic fields.
165
00:12:24,537 --> 00:12:26,997
And unlike the simple sound wave...
166
00:12:27,081 --> 00:12:30,376
radio waves
can travel vast distances.
167
00:12:31,877 --> 00:12:36,632
NASA's Voyager 1 spacecraft
can send radio transmissions to Earth...
168
00:12:36,715 --> 00:12:39,510
from the very edge
of the solar system...
169
00:12:39,593 --> 00:12:41,804
12 billion miles away.
170
00:12:43,180 --> 00:12:44,432
[ No Audible Dialogue ]
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00:12:44,515 --> 00:12:48,811
So a cell phone extends the reach
of the sound waves our voices make...
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00:12:48,894 --> 00:12:54,150
by convening them into radio waves and
transmitting them through the atmosphere.
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00:12:57,653 --> 00:12:59,738
But there's a problem
with radio waves.
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00:13:02,074 --> 00:13:06,829
If too many people want to use them
at the same time, messages get crossed.
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00:13:11,709 --> 00:13:14,545
Onboard the sinking
Costa Concordia...
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00:13:15,379 --> 00:13:19,049
although thousands of calls
are being made at the same time...
177
00:13:19,133 --> 00:13:22,052
just about everyone's call gets through.
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00:13:23,137 --> 00:13:25,389
How is this possible?
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00:13:25,473 --> 00:13:27,600
Big history reveals...
180
00:13:27,683 --> 00:13:31,479
it's because of another disaster
that happens 100 years earlier.
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00:13:47,745 --> 00:13:50,873
[Creaking ]
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00:13:50,956 --> 00:13:53,918
- [Alarm Ringing ]
- [Woman ] Help, somebody!
183
00:13:55,711 --> 00:13:58,130
[ Narrator]
The Titanic is sinking.
184
00:14:01,509 --> 00:14:05,554
Luckily,
there's a wireless radio on board.
185
00:14:06,597 --> 00:14:10,893
- [ Beeping, Tapping ]
- The operator taps out urgent 8.0.8. messages...
186
00:14:11,727 --> 00:14:15,606
that travel on radio waves
to the east coast of North America.
187
00:14:17,942 --> 00:14:20,611
Amateur radio operators
pick up the messages...
188
00:14:20,694 --> 00:14:24,490
and quickly crowd the airwaves
to spread the shocking news.
189
00:14:26,158 --> 00:14:29,370
But because radio waves
are unregulated...
190
00:14:29,453 --> 00:14:33,457
there are no rules to govern
who can use which frequency.
191
00:14:34,542 --> 00:14:36,752
It becomes a free-for-all.
192
00:14:38,212 --> 00:14:40,548
[ Markley]
Everybody's jamming everybody else.
193
00:14:40,631 --> 00:14:42,341
The wireless signals
are flying everywhere.
194
00:14:42,424 --> 00:14:44,464
You can't make head nor tail
of any of the messages.
195
00:14:47,555 --> 00:14:50,266
[ Narrator] The radio communications
are so chaotic...
196
00:14:50,349 --> 00:14:53,894
that some newspapers
report everyone is rescued.
197
00:14:54,645 --> 00:14:58,941
One of the things that the Titanic disaster
brought to the forefront...
198
00:14:59,024 --> 00:15:04,405
was that wireless, as a technology,
was growing too big.
199
00:15:04,488 --> 00:15:06,407
There was anarchy out there.
200
00:15:11,495 --> 00:15:14,290
In direct response
to the Theme disaster...
201
00:15:14,373 --> 00:15:19,795
congress divides the wireless communication
spectrum into organized lanes.
202
00:15:21,171 --> 00:15:25,301
[Stevenson ] This allowed for
lanes of communication in the air...
203
00:15:25,384 --> 00:15:27,511
that we use today.
204
00:15:29,680 --> 00:15:31,724
The rest of the world
follows suit...
205
00:15:31,807 --> 00:15:33,267
clearing the way for radio waves...
206
00:15:33,350 --> 00:15:36,395
to soon dominate
the way we communicate.
207
00:15:41,567 --> 00:15:45,154
Big history has shown
how an ancient force...
208
00:15:48,198 --> 00:15:51,201
coupled with a shipwreck in 1912...
209
00:15:53,787 --> 00:15:56,874
makes modern
cell phone calls possible...
210
00:16:00,711 --> 00:16:04,548
and allows the survivor
of a shipwreck in 2012...
211
00:16:04,632 --> 00:16:08,010
to talk to her husband
on the other side of the globe.
212
00:16:08,093 --> 00:16:10,429
[ Rings 1
213
00:16:12,056 --> 00:16:14,475
[ No Audible Dialogue ]
214
00:16:14,558 --> 00:16:19,605
[ Man ] She said she was dangling off
the side of the ship there in the lifeboat.
215
00:16:19,688 --> 00:16:22,900
She says, uh, “I'm gonna die.”
216
00:16:22,983 --> 00:16:25,903
And I says,
“No, you're not. No.”
217
00:16:26,445 --> 00:16:30,032
Today there are so many
cell phones on Earth...
218
00:16:30,115 --> 00:16:31,909
that we take them for granted.
219
00:16:32,910 --> 00:16:36,455
Bu! cell phones only work
because of a rare, ancient secret...
220
00:16:38,457 --> 00:16:41,585
buried deep beneath the earth.
221
00:16:45,130 --> 00:16:48,425
Big history is a new way
of looking at the world.
222
00:16:49,760 --> 00:16:53,138
It reveals how the cell phone
is a time machine...
223
00:16:56,975 --> 00:17:00,229
that reflects how our brains evolve...
224
00:17:03,982 --> 00:17:07,444
and connects us to events
billions of years in the past.
225
00:17:12,783 --> 00:17:15,327
You hold the history of the universe...
226
00:17:16,245 --> 00:17:19,790
and the power of the planet...
in your pocket.
227
00:17:27,381 --> 00:17:31,301
Each cell phone is like
a geological world tour.
228
00:17:32,803 --> 00:17:36,223
The silicon in the central processor
comes from China.
229
00:17:38,267 --> 00:17:40,894
The plastic circuit board
is made from crude oil...
230
00:17:40,978 --> 00:17:42,771
from places like Saudi Arabia.
231
00:17:44,231 --> 00:17:48,485
The cobalt in the rechargeable battery
is mined in the Congo.
232
00:17:49,319 --> 00:17:52,573
The copper used for circuitry
is found in Chile.
233
00:17:55,659 --> 00:18:00,330
Raw materials that require billions
of years of processing...
234
00:18:00,414 --> 00:18:04,084
by the Earth... and seas.
235
00:18:05,169 --> 00:18:06,670
[Valle]
That phone you are holding...
236
00:18:06,754 --> 00:18:12,009
is a product of not just
human technological evolution.
237
00:18:12,092 --> 00:18:16,847
You are holding the building blocks
of this planet in your hand.
238
00:18:19,183 --> 00:18:21,560
[ Narrator]
One of these building blocks...
239
00:18:21,643 --> 00:18:24,772
means the difference between
phones that look like this...
240
00:18:27,483 --> 00:18:30,110
and ones that look like this.
241
00:18:30,194 --> 00:18:33,989
A powerful metal called tantalum.
242
00:18:39,286 --> 00:18:42,206
[Johnson]
Tantalum is this remarkable material.
243
00:18:42,289 --> 00:18:45,125
It's rare, but it's crucial...
244
00:18:45,209 --> 00:18:47,961
in so much of the technology
that we're using today.
245
00:18:49,004 --> 00:18:52,716
It allows us to make
extremely small components...
246
00:18:52,800 --> 00:18:55,344
that can handle
large amounts of energy.
247
00:18:58,180 --> 00:19:02,017
[ Kean ] Tantalum is really a key component
of modern cell phones...
248
00:19:02,100 --> 00:19:05,395
because it has some
very attractive properties.
249
00:19:05,479 --> 00:19:07,356
It's a very light metal.
250
00:19:07,439 --> 00:19:10,400
Uh, it's also non-corrosive,
and it's heat-resistant.
251
00:19:10,484 --> 00:19:15,823
But most importantly,
tantalum holds a charge very, very well.
252
00:19:17,407 --> 00:19:20,661
[ Narrator] All cell phones
need an energy reserve...
253
00:19:20,744 --> 00:19:22,996
a way to store power
from the battery...
254
00:19:23,080 --> 00:19:25,541
and release it quickly
when its needed.
255
00:19:25,624 --> 00:19:30,128
To do this, the phone
builds up positive charges here...
256
00:19:30,212 --> 00:19:32,381
and negative charges here...
257
00:19:32,464 --> 00:19:34,424
in two separate pieces of metal.
258
00:19:35,425 --> 00:19:37,219
Combine the charges...
259
00:19:37,302 --> 00:19:40,931
and it releases a jolt of energy
that powers the phone.
260
00:19:41,765 --> 00:19:44,434
So the charged metals
have to stay separate...
261
00:19:44,518 --> 00:19:47,187
but close enough that they can
combine their charges...
262
00:19:47,271 --> 00:19:49,022
and create a power surge.
263
00:19:50,148 --> 00:19:52,860
Tantalum has a unique property-
264
00:19:52,943 --> 00:19:56,530
a tendency to form
its own microscopic skin...
265
00:19:57,573 --> 00:20:01,910
an invisible built-in barrier
that keeps the charges apart...
266
00:20:01,994 --> 00:20:04,496
without adding size or weight
to the phone.
267
00:20:06,331 --> 00:20:08,917
[ Markley ] You could make
those capacitors out of aluminum.
268
00:20:09,001 --> 00:20:11,253
But they would have to be
20 times as big.
269
00:20:11,336 --> 00:20:13,547
So good luck fitting that
in your pocket.
270
00:20:14,298 --> 00:20:18,302
[ Narrator] That's why tantalum
is now more valuable than silver...
271
00:20:18,802 --> 00:20:23,098
and why each of us carries
just a little bit of it in our pockets.
272
00:20:25,559 --> 00:20:27,895
[ No Audible Dialogue ]
273
00:20:28,645 --> 00:20:31,106
Each time you make a call...
274
00:20:31,189 --> 00:20:34,151
you're pressing the buttons
on a time machine...
275
00:20:35,319 --> 00:20:38,155
that links us back
across the ages...
276
00:20:39,031 --> 00:20:41,575
to the birth of the universe...
277
00:20:41,658 --> 00:20:44,161
the development of our minds...
278
00:20:44,786 --> 00:20:46,830
and the building blocks
of our planet.
279
00:20:49,708 --> 00:20:52,169
A single human voice...
280
00:20:52,794 --> 00:20:57,174
hitching a ride
on the waves of big history.
281
00:21:01,845 --> 00:21:05,349
But the story of cell phones
is just the beginning.
282
00:21:05,432 --> 00:21:08,352
There's a much bigger puzzle
hidden in big history.
283
00:21:08,435 --> 00:21:11,521
Each episode unlocks a clue.
284
00:21:11,605 --> 00:21:13,273
- Everyday things like beef ..
- [ Moos ]
285
00:21:14,524 --> 00:21:15,692
Silver...
286
00:21:17,194 --> 00:21:19,780
and codes hold the key.
287
00:21:20,864 --> 00:21:24,826
Watch them all, and you'll see
this grand mystery revealed.
288
00:21:24,910 --> 00:21:27,871
The big history of time, of space.
289
00:21:27,955 --> 00:21:30,582
The big history of us.
24522
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