Original subtitles

J. Robert Oppenheimer

might be the most important physicist

might be the most important physicist

to have ever lived.

to have ever lived.

He never won a Nobel Prize,

but he changed the world more than most Nobel Prize winners.

but he changed the world more than most Nobel Prize winners.

but he changed the world more than most Nobel Prize winners.

Under his leadership,

the best physicists of the 20th century

the best physicists of the 20th century

the best physicists of the 20th century

built the atomic bomb

forever changing the course of history.

forever changing the course of history.

- If there is another world war,

- If there is another world war,

this civilization may go under.

this civilization may go under.

- [Derek] He has affected every war waged

- [Derek] He has affected every war waged

and every peace settled since the end of World War ii.

and every peace settled since the end of World War ii.

He also created a way for humanity to destroy itself.

He also created a way for humanity to destroy itself.

He also created a way for humanity to destroy itself.

- Now I am become death,

the destroyer of worlds.

the destroyer of worlds.

- [Derek] This video is about how to build an atomic bomb,

- [Derek] This video is about how to build an atomic bomb,

the life of Oppenheimer,

and why serious scientists were worried about the explosion

and why serious scientists were worried about the explosion

and why serious scientists were worried about the explosion

setting fire to the atmosphere,

setting fire to the atmosphere,

ending all life on earth.

Part of this video is brought to you by Wren.

Part of this video is brought to you by Wren.

When J. Robert Oppenheimer was 21,

he placed an apple laced with toxic chemicals

he placed an apple laced with toxic chemicals

he placed an apple laced with toxic chemicals

on the desk of his physics tutor.

on the desk of his physics tutor.

The tutor, Patrick Blackett,

was an experimentalist and he had hounded Robert

was an experimentalist and he had hounded Robert

was an experimentalist and he had hounded Robert

to do more of what he thought

Robert wasn't very good at, experimental work.

Robert wasn't very good at, experimental work.

Oppenheimer had already been spending his days in a corner

Oppenheimer had already been spending his days in a corner

of JJ Thompson's basement laboratory,

of JJ Thompson's basement laboratory,

of JJ Thompson's basement laboratory,

attempting to make thin films of beryllium,

attempting to make thin films of beryllium,

which were used to study electrons.

which were used to study electrons.

But Oppenheimer was clumsy and not good at this work.

But Oppenheimer was clumsy and not good at this work.

He was soon avoiding his duties in the lab,

He was soon avoiding his duties in the lab,

spending his time listening to lectures

spending his time listening to lectures

and reading physics journals.

It was 1925 and the 21 year old Oppenheimer was becoming

It was 1925 and the 21 year old Oppenheimer was becoming

It was 1925 and the 21 year old Oppenheimer was becoming

fascinated by the new field of quantum mechanics.

fascinated by the new field of quantum mechanics.

Despite being surrounded by brilliant physicists

Despite being surrounded by brilliant physicists

like Rutherford and Chadwick,

like Rutherford and Chadwick,

Oppenheimer was deeply unhappy.

He wrote, "I'm having a pretty bad time.

He wrote, "I'm having a pretty bad time.

The lab work is a terrible bore,

The lab work is a terrible bore,

and I'm so bad at it that it's impossible to feel

and I'm so bad at it that it's impossible to feel

that I'm learning anything."

that I'm learning anything."

A friend walked in on him,

A friend walked in on him,

lying on the floor of his room,

lying on the floor of his room,

which he called "A miserable hole",

which he called "A miserable hole",

groaning and rolling from side to side in emotional anguish.

groaning and rolling from side to side in emotional anguish.

It was in this state that Robert

It was in this state that Robert

It was in this state that Robert

attempted to poison Blackett.

attempted to poison Blackett.

The specifics are lost to history.

There are conflicting reports if Oppenheimer used cyanide

There are conflicting reports if Oppenheimer used cyanide

There are conflicting reports if Oppenheimer used cyanide

or something he found in the lab,

or something he found in the lab,

which would've just made Blackett sick.

which would've just made Blackett sick.

which would've just made Blackett sick.

This story sounds unbelievable,

but Oppenheimer himself confirmed it.

but Oppenheimer himself confirmed it.

Luckily, Blackett did not eat the apple,

Luckily, Blackett did not eat the apple,

but the attempted poisoning became known

but the attempted poisoning became known

to the Cambridge University authorities.

to the Cambridge University authorities.

to the Cambridge University authorities.

Robert's parents were visiting their son

from the US at the time,

from the US at the time,

and Julius Oppenheimer successfully lobbied Cambridge

and Julius Oppenheimer successfully lobbied Cambridge

and Julius Oppenheimer successfully lobbied Cambridge

not to press criminal charges. Due to his family's wealth,

not to press criminal charges. Due to his family's wealth,

Robert wasn't even expelled from Cambridge

Robert wasn't even expelled from Cambridge

on the condition that he had periodic counseling sessions

on the condition that he had periodic counseling sessions

on the condition that he had periodic counseling sessions

with a psychiatrist in London.

with a psychiatrist in London.

(train horn blaring)

(train horn blaring)

(train horn blaring)

(train horn blaring)

In the summer of 1926,

Robert traveled to the University of Göttingen.

Robert traveled to the University of Göttingen.

The chairman of the department was Max Born,

The chairman of the department was Max Born,

who just two years earlier had coined the term,

who just two years earlier had coined the term,

who just two years earlier had coined the term,

"Quantum Mechanics".

"Quantum Mechanics".

Born was reportedly a thoughtful and gentle teacher

Born was reportedly a thoughtful and gentle teacher

and had nurtured the work of Werner Heisenberg,

and had nurtured the work of Werner Heisenberg,

Wolfgang Pauli, Enrico Fermi,

Wolfgang Pauli, Enrico Fermi,

and Eugene Wigner,

basically the who's who of quantum mechanics.

basically the who's who of quantum mechanics.

The class that Oppenheimer was in was also extraordinary,

The class that Oppenheimer was in was also extraordinary,

The class that Oppenheimer was in was also extraordinary,

including luminaries like Paul Dirac and John Von Neumann,

including luminaries like Paul Dirac and John Von Neumann,

where the academic culture at Cambridge focused on

where the academic culture at Cambridge focused on

experimental physics.

experimental physics.

Göttingen was all about theoretical physics,

Göttingen was all about theoretical physics,

and under Max Born's mentorship,

and under Max Born's mentorship,

Oppenheimer thrived.

His mental health improved,

His mental health improved,

and he found a community of people who were

and he found a community of people who were

as obsessed with physics as he was.

as obsessed with physics as he was.

On November 14th, 1926,

Robert wrote to Frank, his younger brother,

Robert wrote to Frank, his younger brother,

"You would like Göttingen.

"You would like Göttingen.

I find the work hard, thank God,

I find the work hard, thank God,

and almost pleasant."

and almost pleasant."

Robert was thriving and his talent was being recognized.

Robert was thriving and his talent was being recognized.

Born later wrote,

"He was a man of great talent and he was conscious

"He was a man of great talent and he was conscious

"He was a man of great talent and he was conscious

of his superiority in a way which was embarrassing

of his superiority in a way which was embarrassing

and led to trouble."

and led to trouble."

When Oppenheimer was 23,

he graduated with his PhD in physics.

he graduated with his PhD in physics.

He wrote his thesis in German on the quantum theory

He wrote his thesis in German on the quantum theory

of continuous spectra.

of continuous spectra.

All in all,

he published more than a dozen papers

he published more than a dozen papers

in the two years he was at Göttingen.

in the two years he was at Göttingen.

Many of them expanded upon the work of Werner Heisenberg,

Many of them expanded upon the work of Werner Heisenberg,

Many of them expanded upon the work of Werner Heisenberg,

who was just three years older than Oppenheimer.

who was just three years older than Oppenheimer.

The two eventually met in 1927,

The two eventually met in 1927,

the same year Heisenberg published his groundbreaking paper

the same year Heisenberg published his groundbreaking paper

the same year Heisenberg published his groundbreaking paper

on the Quantum uncertainty principle.

on the Quantum uncertainty principle.

By all accounts,

the pair got along well.

the pair got along well.

There was no way to know that just 15 years later,

There was no way to know that just 15 years later,

There was no way to know that just 15 years later,

they would be deadly rivals attempting to build

they would be deadly rivals attempting to build

the first nuclear bomb.

the first nuclear bomb.

Oppenheimer for the USA

and Heisenberg for Nazi Germany.

and Heisenberg for Nazi Germany.

At the time,

At the time,

it was thought that getting significant amounts of energy

it was thought that getting significant amounts of energy

it was thought that getting significant amounts of energy

out of radioactive atoms was impossible.

out of radioactive atoms was impossible.

Ever since the discovery of radioactivity

Ever since the discovery of radioactivity

by Henri Becquerel, Marie Curie,

and Pierre Curie in the late 1890s,

and Pierre Curie in the late 1890s,

it was known that radioactivity was a passive process.

it was known that radioactivity was a passive process.

it was known that radioactivity was a passive process.

Unstable atoms would just decay at random,

Unstable atoms would just decay at random,

unpredictable times,

unpredictable times,

and surely there was no way to control that.

and surely there was no way to control that.

In 1933, Ernest Rutherford,

In 1933, Ernest Rutherford,

Oppenheimer's old boss from Cambridge wrote that,

Oppenheimer's old boss from Cambridge wrote that,

"Anyone who expects a source of power

"Anyone who expects a source of power

"Anyone who expects a source of power

from the transformations of these atoms

from the transformations of these atoms

is talking moonshine."

That same year,

That same year,

Albert Einstein said,

"That there is not the slightest indication

"That there is not the slightest indication

that nuclear energy will ever be obtainable.

that nuclear energy will ever be obtainable.

It would mean that the atom

It would mean that the atom

would have to be shattered at will."

would have to be shattered at will."

So how would you break an atomic nucleus?

So how would you break an atomic nucleus?

Well, you could take a proton

and accelerate it through a large electric field

and accelerate it through a large electric field

and accelerate it through a large electric field

and then smash it into a nucleus.

and then smash it into a nucleus.

This is exactly what John Cockcroft

and Ernest Walton did in 1932.

and Ernest Walton did in 1932.

They accelerated protons into lithium nuclei,

They accelerated protons into lithium nuclei,

They accelerated protons into lithium nuclei,

breaking them apart.

The pair would later win a Nobel Prize for this work,

The pair would later win a Nobel Prize for this work,

but a proton is positively charged,

but a proton is positively charged,

so it's repelled by all nuclei,

so it's repelled by all nuclei,

which are also positively charged.

which are also positively charged.

So to give them a hope of overcoming this barrier,

So to give them a hope of overcoming this barrier,

So to give them a hope of overcoming this barrier,

Cockcroft and Walton had to use 250,000 volts

Cockcroft and Walton had to use 250,000 volts

to accelerate the protons.

Even then, only about one in a billion protons

Even then, only about one in a billion protons

Even then, only about one in a billion protons

actually hit and split a lithium nucleus,

actually hit and split a lithium nucleus,

so this would not be an effective way to get energy.

so this would not be an effective way to get energy.

But there is another way.

In 1932, the neutron was discovered

this subatomic particle that's about 0.1%

this subatomic particle that's about 0.1%

this subatomic particle that's about 0.1%

heavier than a proton,

and it has no electric charge,

and it has no electric charge,

so a neutron would not be repelled from a nucleus.

so a neutron would not be repelled from a nucleus.

And in 1933,

And in 1933,

Leo Szilard was thinking about how you could use neutrons

Leo Szilard was thinking about how you could use neutrons

to split nuclei.

to split nuclei.

"It suddenly occurred to me that if we could find an element

"It suddenly occurred to me that if we could find an element

which is split by neutrons and which would emit two neutrons

which is split by neutrons and which would emit two neutrons

which is split by neutrons and which would emit two neutrons

when it absorbed one neutron,

when it absorbed one neutron,

such an element if assembled sufficiently large mass,

such an element if assembled sufficiently large mass,

could sustain a nuclear chain reaction."

could sustain a nuclear chain reaction."

could sustain a nuclear chain reaction."

But the thing is,

nobody knew if there was an element

nobody knew if there was an element

that had a kind of nucleus that would do that.

that had a kind of nucleus that would do that.

On the 29th of January, 1939,

Louise Alvarez, a promising young physicist,

Louise Alvarez, a promising young physicist,

was getting a haircut while reading

was getting a haircut while reading

"The San Francisco Chronicle",

"The San Francisco Chronicle",

and suddenly he got outta the chair

and suddenly he got outta the chair

halfway through the haircut and ran to Oppenheimer's office.

halfway through the haircut and ran to Oppenheimer's office.

halfway through the haircut and ran to Oppenheimer's office.

Alvarez read an article about how two German chemists,

Alvarez read an article about how two German chemists,

Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann

Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann

had successfully split an atom of uranium

had successfully split an atom of uranium

by bombarding it with neutrons.

by bombarding it with neutrons.

Oppenheimer was not impressed.

Oppenheimer was not impressed.

"That's impossible."

He reportedly told the Young Alvarez

He reportedly told the Young Alvarez

proceeding to mathematically prove on his blackboard

proceeding to mathematically prove on his blackboard

proceeding to mathematically prove on his blackboard

why fission could never be achieved.

But the next day,

Alvarez had repeated the experiment

Alvarez had repeated the experiment

and invited Oppenheimer to see it.

and invited Oppenheimer to see it.

Alvarez later recalled that,

"In less than 15 minutes,

"In less than 15 minutes,

he not only agreed that the reaction was authentic,

he not only agreed that the reaction was authentic,

but also speculated that in the process,

but also speculated that in the process,

extra neutrons would boil off.

extra neutrons would boil off.

That could be used to split more uranium atoms

That could be used to split more uranium atoms

and thereby generate power or make bombs."

and thereby generate power or make bombs."

When a single atom of uranium-235 splits apart,

When a single atom of uranium-235 splits apart,

When a single atom of uranium-235 splits apart,

it loses a little bit of mass,

it loses a little bit of mass,

which is released as energy.

Following Einstein's mass energy equivalence.

Following Einstein's mass energy equivalence.

That is a tiny amount of energy,

That is a tiny amount of energy,

about 20 times less than the amount required

about 20 times less than the amount required

to raise a grain of sand,

to raise a grain of sand,

the thickness of a piece of paper.

the thickness of a piece of paper.

the thickness of a piece of paper.

But atoms are also tiny.

In a one kilogram lump of uranium,

In a one kilogram lump of uranium,

there are about a trillion, trillion atoms,

there are about a trillion, trillion atoms,

so the energy quickly adds up.

so the energy quickly adds up.

Soon, almost everyone was convinced in August of 1939,

Soon, almost everyone was convinced in August of 1939,

Einstein, who just six years earlier

Einstein, who just six years earlier

believed that nuclear bombs were impossible,

believed that nuclear bombs were impossible,

signed his name to a letter

signed his name to a letter

addressed to President Franklin Roosevelt.

addressed to President Franklin Roosevelt.

The letter actually written by Szilard warned Roosevelt

The letter actually written by Szilard warned Roosevelt

of the possibility of nuclear weapons.

of the possibility of nuclear weapons.

It also pointed out that Germany had access to uranium

It also pointed out that Germany had access to uranium

It also pointed out that Germany had access to uranium

from the mines in Czechoslovakia,

from the mines in Czechoslovakia,

which was recently taken over by the Nazis.

which was recently taken over by the Nazis.

Roosevelt began an informal uranium committee

Roosevelt began an informal uranium committee

to discuss this topic,

to discuss this topic,

but then for two years, nothing happened.

but then for two years, nothing happened.

In 1941, Roosevelt upgraded the informal

uranium committee to the S-1 committee,

uranium committee to the S-1 committee,

uranium committee to the S-1 committee,

which would report directly to the White House.

which would report directly to the White House.

The explicit goal was to develop an atomic bomb,

The explicit goal was to develop an atomic bomb,

and in May, 1942,

Oppenheimer was hired onto the committee

Oppenheimer was hired onto the committee

to be the coordinator of rapid rupture.

to be the coordinator of rapid rupture.

So why was he selected?

So why was he selected?

(dramatic music)

(dramatic music)

(dramatic music)

Well, after completing his PhD,

Oppenheimer became a physics professor,

Oppenheimer became a physics professor,

Oppenheimer became a physics professor,

first at UC Berkeley, and then at Caltech,

the brilliance he had shown

the brilliance he had shown

under Max Born's tutelage didn't fade.

under Max Born's tutelage didn't fade.

Indeed, it blossomed into a remarkable

Indeed, it blossomed into a remarkable

but strange physics career.

but strange physics career.

In the 15 years after finishing his PhD,

In the 15 years after finishing his PhD,

Oppenheimer made important contributions to everything from

Oppenheimer made important contributions to everything from

Oppenheimer made important contributions to everything from

nuclear physics to quantum field theory,

nuclear physics to quantum field theory,

and even astrophysics.

He had a number of Nobel Prize winning ideas.

He had a number of Nobel Prize winning ideas.

One of his students, Willis Lamb,

One of his students, Willis Lamb,

became a Nobel laureate,

became a Nobel laureate,

but Oppenheimer himself was nominated three times,

but Oppenheimer himself was nominated three times,

but never actually won the Nobel Prize.

but never actually won the Nobel Prize.

When asked why he thought that Oppenheimer

When asked why he thought that Oppenheimer

never won the Nobel Prize,

Murray Gell-Mann said that,

Murray Gell-Mann said that,

"He didn't have Sitzfleisch"

"He didn't have Sitzfleisch"

A German word that translates to sitting flesh.

A German word that translates to sitting flesh.

The ability to sit down in a chair for a long time

The ability to sit down in a chair for a long time

and do the hard work.

and do the hard work.

"He never wrote a long paper or did a long calculation.

"He never wrote a long paper or did a long calculation.

He didn't have the patience for that."

He didn't have the patience for that."

Wolfgang Pauli also said,

Wolfgang Pauli also said,

"His ideas are very good,

"His ideas are very good,

but his calculations are always wrong."

but his calculations are always wrong."

But Oppenheimer was amazing with people.

But Oppenheimer was amazing with people.

He was a natural and charismatic leader,

He was a natural and charismatic leader,

and this combination,

and this combination,

his charisma and his ability to generate great ideas

his charisma and his ability to generate great ideas

would serve him well in the next phase of his life.

would serve him well in the next phase of his life.

(upbeat music)

(upbeat music)

On the 18th of September, 1942,

general Leslie Groves was put in charge

general Leslie Groves was put in charge

of the Manhattan Project.

of the Manhattan Project.

- I was responsible for the development of the atomic bomb.

- I was responsible for the development of the atomic bomb.

- [Derek] On day one, he ordered 1200 tons of uranium ore.

- [Derek] On day one, he ordered 1200 tons of uranium ore.

- [Derek] On day one, he ordered 1200 tons of uranium ore.

The next day,

he ordered to buy the Oak Ridge site

he ordered to buy the Oak Ridge site

where the ore would be refined.

where the ore would be refined.

The next month in a surprising move,

The next month in a surprising move,

he chose Oppenheimer to be the science director

he chose Oppenheimer to be the science director

of the soon to be established Los Alamos laboratory.

of the soon to be established Los Alamos laboratory.

of the soon to be established Los Alamos laboratory.

Oppenheimer had just been selected to be the chief architect

Oppenheimer had just been selected to be the chief architect

of the atomic bomb.

of the atomic bomb.

The military establishment had concerns.

Oppenheimer did not have a Nobel Prize,

Oppenheimer did not have a Nobel Prize,

Oppenheimer did not have a Nobel Prize,

so would the scientists hired for the project,

so would the scientists hired for the project,

respect his opinion,

and follow his leadership?

and follow his leadership?

Oppenheimer also had no prior administrative experience

Oppenheimer also had no prior administrative experience

over a large project like this.

over a large project like this.

Furthermore, he was a theoretical physicist,

Furthermore, he was a theoretical physicist,

who according to Isidor Rabi,

who according to Isidor Rabi,

"Was a very impractical fellow.

"Was a very impractical fellow.

He didn't know anything about equipment."

He didn't know anything about equipment."

And then there was the problem

And then there was the problem

of Oppenheimer's political stance.

of Oppenheimer's political stance.

He had links to the Communist Party,

He had links to the Communist Party,

including his wife, Catherine,

including his wife, Catherine,

who was a member of that party.

who was a member of that party.

But Groves was impressed by Oppenheimer.

He valued his overwhelming ambition.

He valued his overwhelming ambition.

He also knew that Oppenheimer's ability to understand

He also knew that Oppenheimer's ability to understand

He also knew that Oppenheimer's ability to understand

problems not just in physics,

problems not just in physics,

but chemistry, engineering,

and metallurgy would be invaluable.

and metallurgy would be invaluable.

Groves thought that Oppenheimer was a "Real genius."

Groves thought that Oppenheimer was a "Real genius."

Saying that why Oppenheimer knows about everything.

Saying that why Oppenheimer knows about everything.

Saying that why Oppenheimer knows about everything.

"He can talk to you about anything you bring up.

"He can talk to you about anything you bring up.

Well, not exactly.

Well, not exactly.

He doesn't know anything about sports."

The two men couldn't have been more different.

The two men couldn't have been more different.

Oppenheimer weighed half as much as Groves

Oppenheimer weighed half as much as Groves

despite both of them being nearly six feet tall.

despite both of them being nearly six feet tall.

Ideologically, Oppenheimer was a communist.

Ideologically, Oppenheimer was a communist.

Groves, a staunch conservative,

Groves, a staunch conservative,

Groves, a staunch conservative,

but Groves was convinced that Oppenheimer

but Groves was convinced that Oppenheimer

would be the person that would build the atomic bomb

would be the person that would build the atomic bomb

before the Nazis,

before the Nazis,

and that was all that mattered.

and that was all that mattered.

Isador Rabi later commented that,

hiring Oppenheimer for this role was

hiring Oppenheimer for this role was

"A real stroke of genius

"A real stroke of genius

on the part of General Groves,

who was not generally considered to be a genius."

who was not generally considered to be a genius."

The Manhattan Project needed a location.

The Manhattan Project needed a location.

Somewhere isolated to keep the project secret

Somewhere isolated to keep the project secret

safe from enemy attack.

And while no one wanted to admit it,

And while no one wanted to admit it,

somewhere that was sparsely populated,

somewhere that was sparsely populated,

just in case there was an accident,

just in case there was an accident,

Oppenheimer proposed Los Alamos, New Mexico.

Oppenheimer proposed Los Alamos, New Mexico.

He had fallen in love with the harsh desert in the mountains

He had fallen in love with the harsh desert in the mountains

of New Mexico when he was in his twenties.

of New Mexico when he was in his twenties.

In 1929, Oppenheimer wrote to a friend.

In 1929, Oppenheimer wrote to a friend.

"My two great loves are physics and New Mexico.

"My two great loves are physics and New Mexico.

"My two great loves are physics and New Mexico.

It's a pity they can't be combined."

It's a pity they can't be combined."

But Oppenheimer had severely underestimated the logistical

But Oppenheimer had severely underestimated the logistical

challenge ahead.

challenge ahead.

(gentle music)

(gentle music)

In 1943, Oppenheimer estimated

In 1943, Oppenheimer estimated

that he'd need about six scientists

that he'd need about six scientists

supported by a handful of engineers

supported by a handful of engineers

and technicians to make a bomb.

and technicians to make a bomb.

He was off by two orders of magnitude.

764 scientists would end up

764 scientists would end up

working for the Manhattan Project.

working for the Manhattan Project.

302 of which would work at the Los Alamos site.

302 of which would work at the Los Alamos site.

Over 600,000 people in total were involved

Over 600,000 people in total were involved

with the making of the atomic bomb.

with the making of the atomic bomb.

By this point, making the atom bomb didn't seem impossible.

By this point, making the atom bomb didn't seem impossible.

It seemed likely.

On the 2nd of December, 1942,

a team of physicists at the University of Chicago

a team of physicists at the University of Chicago

a team of physicists at the University of Chicago

led by Enrico Fermi created the world's

first artificial nuclear reactor Pile-1.

first artificial nuclear reactor Pile-1.

first artificial nuclear reactor Pile-1.

It consisted of 45 tons of uranium and uranium oxide

It consisted of 45 tons of uranium and uranium oxide

and 330 tons of graphite blocks.

and 330 tons of graphite blocks.

Horrifyingly enough.

It was located under the stands of the football field.

It was located under the stands of the football field.

It was located under the stands of the football field.

It generated about half a watt of power,

It generated about half a watt of power,

It generated about half a watt of power,

and if you can make a nuclear power plant,

and if you can make a nuclear power plant,

you can make a bomb.

The only real difference between the two

The only real difference between the two

is how many neutrons hit the next atom,

is how many neutrons hit the next atom,

causing it to split and release more neutrons.

causing it to split and release more neutrons.

If on average that number is one,

If on average that number is one,

there will be a stable self-sustaining chain reaction,

there will be a stable self-sustaining chain reaction,

there will be a stable self-sustaining chain reaction,

but it won't grow.

If it's less than one,

If it's less than one,

the reaction will die down,

and if it's more than one,

and if it's more than one,

the reaction will grow.

the reaction will grow.

This is known as the multiplication factor, K.

This is known as the multiplication factor, K.

Nuclear reactions are similar to pandemics in this way.

Nuclear reactions are similar to pandemics in this way.

The simplest way to make a nuclear bomb

The simplest way to make a nuclear bomb

is to get enough fissile material close together

is to get enough fissile material close together

that it creates a runaway chain reaction.

that it creates a runaway chain reaction.

That amount is known as the critical mass.

That amount is known as the critical mass.

With uranium-235,

you need about 52 kilograms.

you need about 52 kilograms.

Forming a sphere with a diameter of 17 centimeters.

Forming a sphere with a diameter of 17 centimeters.

If you use plutonium-239,

If you use plutonium-239,

the critical mass is much smaller,

the critical mass is much smaller,

only around 10 kilograms,

only around 10 kilograms,

which would create a sphere only 10 centimeters wide.

which would create a sphere only 10 centimeters wide.

which would create a sphere only 10 centimeters wide.

For the first few years,

the scientists worked on a bomb with a gun type design.

the scientists worked on a bomb with a gun type design.

the scientists worked on a bomb with a gun type design.

Inside a gun type bomb,

you have two slabs of uranium-235,

you have two slabs of uranium-235,

both of which are below the critical mass.

both of which are below the critical mass.

both of which are below the critical mass.

Then using a conventional explosive like cordite,

Then using a conventional explosive like cordite,

you rapidly fire one towards the other.

you rapidly fire one towards the other.

So the combined mass is higher than the critical mass.

So the combined mass is higher than the critical mass.

So the combined mass is higher than the critical mass.

When the uranium bullet is about 25 centimeters away,

When the uranium bullet is about 25 centimeters away,

the nuclear chain reaction begins

the nuclear chain reaction begins

resulting in an atomic explosion.

resulting in an atomic explosion.

resulting in an atomic explosion.

Despite the simple design,

it is not very efficient.

it is not very efficient.

Only a small percentage of the uranium undergoes fission,

Only a small percentage of the uranium undergoes fission,

so the total yield of the bomb is much smaller.

so the total yield of the bomb is much smaller.

You also run into some unexpected problems,

You also run into some unexpected problems,

You also run into some unexpected problems,

like how do you make sure the uranium

slides smoothly through the barrel?

slides smoothly through the barrel?

Well, you use oil to lubricate the barrel,

Well, you use oil to lubricate the barrel,

but all the synthetic oils the scientists tried

but all the synthetic oils the scientists tried

but all the synthetic oils the scientists tried

would dry up.

In the end,

the only oil they could find that would work

the only oil they could find that would work

was the oil from sperm whales.

was the oil from sperm whales.

Only about 0.7% of naturally occurring uranium is U235,

Only about 0.7% of naturally occurring uranium is U235,

the fissile fuel for nuclear bombs.

the fissile fuel for nuclear bombs.

When U235 absorbs a neutron,

When U235 absorbs a neutron,

it briefly becomes U236,

it briefly becomes U236,

and then it rips itself roughly in half

and then it rips itself roughly in half

and releases on average 2.4 neutrons per fission.

and releases on average 2.4 neutrons per fission.

But when you get uranium outta the ground,

But when you get uranium outta the ground,

most of it is U238,

most of it is U238,

which doesn't undergo fission.

So to make a nuclear bomb,

So to make a nuclear bomb,

the scientists use gigantic mass spectrometers

the scientists use gigantic mass spectrometers

to separate out and concentrate the U235,

to separate out and concentrate the U235,

to separate out and concentrate the U235,

and the resulting substance was uranium

with a much higher concentration of U235.

with a much higher concentration of U235.

with a much higher concentration of U235.

In other words, it was enriched.

In other words, it was enriched.

There was another option though.

There was another option though.

In early 1941,

a new element was discovered or rather synthesized.

a new element was discovered or rather synthesized.

When a neutron is absorbed by a nucleus of uranium-238,

When a neutron is absorbed by a nucleus of uranium-238,

When a neutron is absorbed by a nucleus of uranium-238,

it turns into uranium-239.

U239 is unstable,

U239 is unstable,

so it decays into Neptunium,

so it decays into Neptunium,

which then becomes plutonium.

There are three things that matter for this story.

There are three things that matter for this story.

First is that plutonium-239

is a great fuel for a nuclear bomb.

is a great fuel for a nuclear bomb.

It has a critical mass of only about 10 kilograms.

It has a critical mass of only about 10 kilograms.

It has a critical mass of only about 10 kilograms.

Second, it is cheaper to make than to separate uranium-235

Second, it is cheaper to make than to separate uranium-235

and third, it reacts too quickly

and third, it reacts too quickly

to be used in a gun type device.

to be used in a gun type device.

It would fizzle,

meaning only a tiny fraction of the fuel

meaning only a tiny fraction of the fuel

would undergo fission.

would undergo fission.

would undergo fission.

But there is a way to make a bomb using plutonium.

But there is a way to make a bomb using plutonium.

Critical mass changes depending on the density

Critical mass changes depending on the density

of the material.

of the material.

Under normal pressure conditions,

six kilograms of plutonium-239 won't explode.

six kilograms of plutonium-239 won't explode.

six kilograms of plutonium-239 won't explode.

But if you compress it,

the atoms get closer together and the chance of a stay

the atoms get closer together and the chance of a stay

the atoms get closer together and the chance of a stay

neutron hitting the nucleus increases.

neutron hitting the nucleus increases.

So the higher the density, the lower the critical mass.

So the higher the density, the lower the critical mass.

So if you set off conventional explosives

So if you set off conventional explosives

So if you set off conventional explosives

around a ball of plutonium,

around a ball of plutonium,

you can get it compressed enough

to start a nuclear chain reaction.

to start a nuclear chain reaction.

And this was the whole idea behind

And this was the whole idea behind

the implosion bomb design.

the implosion bomb design.

There are a couple ways to cheat lowering the critical mass.

There are a couple ways to cheat lowering the critical mass.

For one thing,

For one thing,

you surround the sphere with a material that reflects

you surround the sphere with a material that reflects

neutrons decreasing the amount of nuclear fuel

neutrons decreasing the amount of nuclear fuel

you need to start a chain reaction.

you need to start a chain reaction.

You can also have a neutron source,

You can also have a neutron source,

something that kick starts the chain reaction.

something that kick starts the chain reaction.

For the first implosion bomb,

For the first implosion bomb,

scientists created a device called the urchin,

scientists created a device called the urchin,

which was a tiny pellet weighing just seven grams,

which was a tiny pellet weighing just seven grams,

which was a tiny pellet weighing just seven grams,

and it would sit at the heart of the bomb.

and it would sit at the heart of the bomb.

It was made of beryllium and polonium

It was made of beryllium and polonium

separated by a layer of nickel and gold.

separated by a layer of nickel and gold.

The idea was that when the explosives detonated,

The idea was that when the explosives detonated,

the shockwave would mix the beryllium and polonium together,

the shockwave would mix the beryllium and polonium together,

the shockwave would mix the beryllium and polonium together,

and then the alpha particles from polonium

and then the alpha particles from polonium

would cause the beryllium to release a flood of neutrons,

would cause the beryllium to release a flood of neutrons,

which would set off the nuclear chain reaction.

which would set off the nuclear chain reaction.

At least that was the hope.

An atomic bomb had never been made before.

An atomic bomb had never been made before.

Oppenheimer and the rest of the scientists at Los Alamos

Oppenheimer and the rest of the scientists at Los Alamos

Oppenheimer and the rest of the scientists at Los Alamos

needed to act quickly.

needed to act quickly.

It was already 1945,

and Truman wanted to test the weapon

and Truman wanted to test the weapon

before the start of the Potsdam conference.

before the start of the Potsdam conference.

That's where Truman, Churchill,

That's where Truman, Churchill,

and Stalin would come together to plan the post-war piece.

and Stalin would come together to plan the post-war piece.

and Stalin would come together to plan the post-war piece.

The conference began on the 17th of July.

The conference began on the 17th of July.

The earliest date that everything could be ready

The earliest date that everything could be ready

for the bomb was just one day earlier.

for the bomb was just one day earlier.

So that is when the test was scheduled.

So that is when the test was scheduled.

It was Codenamed Trinity.

The night before Oppenheimer was nervous.

The night before Oppenheimer was nervous.

There were so many things that could go wrong.

There were so many things that could go wrong.

The last test firing of the explosives

The last test firing of the explosives

without the actual plutonium core was a failure.

without the actual plutonium core was a failure.

without the actual plutonium core was a failure.

To calm himself,

he recited a stanza from the Bhagavad Gita,

he recited a stanza from the Bhagavad Gita,

the sacred Hindu poem.

the sacred Hindu poem.

He had actually translated the Gita from the original

He had actually translated the Gita from the original

Sanskrit in himself.

In battle, in forest,

In battle, in forest,

at the precipice in the mountains,

at the precipice in the mountains,

on the dark great sea,

on the dark great sea,

in the midst of javelins

and arrows in sleep,

and arrows in sleep,

in confusion, in the depths of shame,

in confusion, in the depths of shame,

the good deeds a man has done before defend him.

the good deeds a man has done before defend him.

the good deeds a man has done before defend him.

Perhaps more terrifying than the idea of the bomb

Perhaps more terrifying than the idea of the bomb

not working was that it would work too well.

not working was that it would work too well.

Around 1942, Oppenheimer discussed with Arthur Compton

Around 1942, Oppenheimer discussed with Arthur Compton

a terrible possibility that a nuclear test

a terrible possibility that a nuclear test

could end the world.

The worry was that the nuclear bomb

The worry was that the nuclear bomb

would create temperatures so hot that fusion would occur.

would create temperatures so hot that fusion would occur.

would create temperatures so hot that fusion would occur.

A tiny fraction of the atmosphere,

just one part in 2 million is hydrogen gas.

just one part in 2 million is hydrogen gas.

just one part in 2 million is hydrogen gas.

But the worry was that at high enough temperatures

But the worry was that at high enough temperatures

and pressures that hydrogen could fuse to together

and pressures that hydrogen could fuse to together

releasing energy,

releasing energy,

this energy would fuse more hydrogen.

It could also break apart the hydrogen

It could also break apart the hydrogen

from water vapor causing that to fuse as well.

from water vapor causing that to fuse as well.

from water vapor causing that to fuse as well.

That would release even more energy

That would release even more energy

causing yet more fusion until the entirety

causing yet more fusion until the entirety

of the Earth's atmosphere would become a giant fusion bomb.

of the Earth's atmosphere would become a giant fusion bomb.

of the Earth's atmosphere would become a giant fusion bomb.

Recalling his conversations with Oppenheimer in 1959,

Recalling his conversations with Oppenheimer in 1959,

Compton said, "Nor was this all that Oppenheimer feared.

Compton said, "Nor was this all that Oppenheimer feared.

The nitrogen in the air is also unstable,

The nitrogen in the air is also unstable,

The nitrogen in the air is also unstable,

though in less degree.

Might not it, too, be set off by an

Might not it, too, be set off by an

atomic explosion in the atmosphere."

atomic explosion in the atmosphere."

atomic explosion in the atmosphere."

Most of the scientists quickly realized

how unlikely this scenario was,

how unlikely this scenario was,

and they continued on with the project,

and they continued on with the project,

so no one took the idea too seriously.

so no one took the idea too seriously.

But the thought of starting a fusion reaction with a fission

But the thought of starting a fusion reaction with a fission

But the thought of starting a fusion reaction with a fission

weapon would become very important after the war.

weapon would become very important after the war.

(dramatic music)

(dramatic music)

The Trinity test was scheduled for 4:00 AM

but it was delayed due to a storm.

but it was delayed due to a storm.

So at 5:29 and 21 seconds, the gadget,

So at 5:29 and 21 seconds, the gadget,

the world's first nuclear bomb detonated,

the world's first nuclear bomb detonated,

the world's first nuclear bomb detonated,

the high explosive squeezed the core of plutonium inwards.

the high explosive squeezed the core of plutonium inwards.

The shockwave mixed the beryllium and polonium

The shockwave mixed the beryllium and polonium

releasing a flood of neutrons.

releasing a flood of neutrons.

The urchin worked.

It jump started the nuclear reaction,

It jump started the nuclear reaction,

and now there was no way to stop it.

and now there was no way to stop it.

Just six kilograms of plutonium created an explosion

Just six kilograms of plutonium created an explosion

that was equivalent to nearly 25,000 tons of TNT.

that was equivalent to nearly 25,000 tons of TNT.

that was equivalent to nearly 25,000 tons of TNT.

The New Mexico mountains were illuminated

The New Mexico mountains were illuminated

brighter than in daytime.

brighter than in daytime.

The shockwave was felt from over 160 kilometers away.

The shockwave was felt from over 160 kilometers away.

The shockwave was felt from over 160 kilometers away.

The mushroom cloud rose to 12 kilometers into the sky.

The mushroom cloud rose to 12 kilometers into the sky.

The mushroom cloud rose to 12 kilometers into the sky.

It was so hot that the desert sand melted

It was so hot that the desert sand melted

into a glassy mineral, now known as trinitite.

into a glassy mineral, now known as trinitite.

Fortunately, the blast did not set fire to the atmosphere.

Fortunately, the blast did not set fire to the atmosphere.

Fortunately, the blast did not set fire to the atmosphere.

On August 6th, 1945,

the Boeing B29 Flying Fortress dropped little boy,

the Boeing B29 Flying Fortress dropped little boy,

a gun type nuclear bomb with 64 kilograms

a gun type nuclear bomb with 64 kilograms

of enriched uranium.

of enriched uranium.

The nitro cellulose ignited pushing the slugs

The nitro cellulose ignited pushing the slugs

The nitro cellulose ignited pushing the slugs

of uranium-235 together,

of uranium-235 together,

tipping it over its critical mass.

The blast from the explosion equivalent

The blast from the explosion equivalent

to 15,000 tons of TNT,

to 15,000 tons of TNT,

to 15,000 tons of TNT,

killed nearly 70,000 people.

killed nearly 70,000 people.

killed nearly 70,000 people.

Another 70,000 would die from burns and radiation poisoning

Another 70,000 would die from burns and radiation poisoning

in the following months.

in the following months.

in the following months.

Three days later,

an implosion type bomb, like the gadget,

an implosion type bomb, like the gadget,

was dropped on Nagasaki

killing an estimated 80,000 more people.

killing an estimated 80,000 more people.

More than 95% of the 225,000 people killed

More than 95% of the 225,000 people killed

in the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were civilians.

in the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were civilians.

in the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were civilians.

Most were women and children.

In 1965, recalling the moments after the Trinity test,

In 1965, recalling the moments after the Trinity test,

Oppenheimer said that he thought of another verse

Oppenheimer said that he thought of another verse

from the Ghita.

from the Ghita.

- He knew the world would not be the same.

Few people laughed,

Few people laughed,

few people cried.

Most people were silent.

I remembered the line from the Hindu scripture,

I remembered the line from the Hindu scripture,

the (speaking foreign language).

the (speaking foreign language).

The Vishnu is trying to persuade the prince

The Vishnu is trying to persuade the prince

The Vishnu is trying to persuade the prince

that he should do his duty

that he should do his duty

and to impress him takes on his multi-armed form and says,

and to impress him takes on his multi-armed form and says,

and to impress him takes on his multi-armed form and says,

'Now I am become death the destroyer of worlds.'

'Now I am become death the destroyer of worlds.'

'Now I am become death the destroyer of worlds.'

I suppose we all thought that one way or another.

I suppose we all thought that one way or another.

- [Derek] After the war,

Oppenheimer was a national hero.

Oppenheimer was a national hero.

His portrait was on the cover of Time Magazine,

His portrait was on the cover of Time Magazine,

and he became a household name.

and he became a household name.

In 1947, he became the director

of the Institute of Advanced Study at Princeton.

of the Institute of Advanced Study at Princeton.

of the Institute of Advanced Study at Princeton.

He also became the chairman

of the General Advisory Committee,

of the General Advisory Committee,

where he became an advisor on nuclear weapons

where he became an advisor on nuclear weapons

where he became an advisor on nuclear weapons

related issues.

He used his position to argue for arms control.

He used his position to argue for arms control.

(dramatic music)

(dramatic music)

(dramatic music)

In August, 1949,

the Soviet Union tested their first atomic weapon,

the Soviet Union tested their first atomic weapon,

and the US military quickly decided

that the best course of action

that the best course of action

was to develop a more powerful bomb.

was to develop a more powerful bomb.

The hydrogen bomb,

The hydrogen bomb,

known as "The Super",

Oppenheimer was against the development

Oppenheimer was against the development

Oppenheimer was against the development

of The Super on ethical grounds

and the worry that it would start an arms race.

and the worry that it would start an arms race.

and the worry that it would start an arms race.

But Truman's administration pushed through,

But Truman's administration pushed through,

and three years later, Ivy Mike,

and three years later, Ivy Mike,

the first hydrogen bomb was tested in the Marshall Islands.

the first hydrogen bomb was tested in the Marshall Islands.

It had a yield of 10.4 megatons of TNT.

It had a yield of 10.4 megatons of TNT.

That's 400 times more powerful than the Trinity test.

That's 400 times more powerful than the Trinity test.

A hydrogen bomb is actually three bombs in one,

A hydrogen bomb is actually three bombs in one,

A hydrogen bomb is actually three bombs in one,

a conventional bomb, a fission bomb,

a conventional bomb, a fission bomb,

and a fusion bomb.

and a fusion bomb.

The conventional explosives trigger a fission reaction,

The conventional explosives trigger a fission reaction,

which increases the temperature and pressure

which increases the temperature and pressure

enough to fuse deuterium and tritium together,

enough to fuse deuterium and tritium together,

releasing a huge amount of energy.

releasing a huge amount of energy.

releasing a huge amount of energy.

In 1961, the Soviet Union tested the Tsar Bomba,

In 1961, the Soviet Union tested the Tsar Bomba,

the most powerful explosion ever detonated.

the most powerful explosion ever detonated.

It was another five times more powerful than Ivy Mike

It was another five times more powerful than Ivy Mike

around 2000 times more powerful than Trinity.

around 2000 times more powerful than Trinity.

around 2000 times more powerful than Trinity.

This kind of arms race

was exactly what Oppenheimer had feared,

was exactly what Oppenheimer had feared,

in part, due to his opposition to the hydrogen bomb.

in part, due to his opposition to the hydrogen bomb.

And due to his calls to avert a nuclear arms race,

And due to his calls to avert a nuclear arms race,

And due to his calls to avert a nuclear arms race,

Oppenheimer was essentially put on trial

Oppenheimer was essentially put on trial

to revoke his security clearance.

to revoke his security clearance.

He had been surveilled while he was working

He had been surveilled while he was working

for the Manhattan Project,

but that surveillance didn't stop after he left.

but that surveillance didn't stop after he left.

but that surveillance didn't stop after he left.

Many of the wiretaps were illegal and warrantless.

Many of the wiretaps were illegal and warrantless.

Oppenheimer was questioned about his ties

Oppenheimer was questioned about his ties

to the Communist Party,

to the Communist Party,

including his affair with Gene Tatlock,

including his affair with Gene Tatlock,

a Communist party member

a Communist party member

while he was leading the Los Alamos lab.

while he was leading the Los Alamos lab.

He was essentially accused of treason and espionage.

He was essentially accused of treason and espionage.

In December, 1953,

In December, 1953,

Oppenheimer had his security clearance suspended.

Oppenheimer had his security clearance suspended.

His face now grim and in black and white

His face now grim and in black and white

was once again on the cover of time.

was once again on the cover of time.

His security hearings were international news.

His security hearings were international news.

In 1964, German playwright Heinar Kipphardt

In 1964, German playwright Heinar Kipphardt

wrote a play about Oppenheimer's life.

wrote a play about Oppenheimer's life.

Oppenheimer was sent a copy of this script,

Oppenheimer was sent a copy of this script,

and he hated it so much that he threatened to sue.

and he hated it so much that he threatened to sue.

He especially despised the final scene where the character

He especially despised the final scene where the character

of Oppenheimer realizes the evil of his work.

of Oppenheimer realizes the evil of his work.

of Oppenheimer realizes the evil of his work.

And I quote,

"We have been doing the work of the devil."

"We have been doing the work of the devil."

"We have been doing the work of the devil."

To Oppenheimer, it was always more complicated than that.

To Oppenheimer, it was always more complicated than that.

To Oppenheimer, it was always more complicated than that.

- I think that it probably was assumed,

it certainly was always assumed at Los Alamos

it certainly was always assumed at Los Alamos

it certainly was always assumed at Los Alamos

that if the war were not over and not clearly

that if the war were not over and not clearly

that if the war were not over and not clearly

to be brought to a conclusion by the diplomatic means

to be brought to a conclusion by the diplomatic means

to be brought to a conclusion by the diplomatic means

this weapon would play a part.

this weapon would play a part.

At the time, the alternative,

At the time, the alternative,

the campaign of invasion was certainly much more terrible

the campaign of invasion was certainly much more terrible

for everyone concerned.

for everyone concerned.

I think that Hiroshima was far more costly in life

I think that Hiroshima was far more costly in life

I think that Hiroshima was far more costly in life

and suffering inhumane than it needed to have been,

and suffering inhumane than it needed to have been,

and suffering inhumane than it needed to have been,

to have been an effective argument for ending the war.

to have been an effective argument for ending the war.

This is easy to say after the fact.

- In 1965, he was asked about the recent proposal of talks

- In 1965, he was asked about the recent proposal of talks

- In 1965, he was asked about the recent proposal of talks

with the Soviet Union to halt the proliferation

with the Soviet Union to halt the proliferation

of nuclear weapons,

of nuclear weapons,

and his response was,

"It should have been done the day after Trinity.

"It should have been done the day after Trinity.

"It should have been done the day after Trinity.

Later that same year, he was diagnosed with throat cancer.

Later that same year, he was diagnosed with throat cancer.

He was a lifelong smoker,

He was a lifelong smoker,

and he died on the 18th of February, 1967 aged 62.

and he died on the 18th of February, 1967 aged 62.

Advances in science and technology have given humans

Advances in science and technology have given humans

tremendous power to make the world better or worse,

tremendous power to make the world better or worse,

and nuclear war isn't the only thing we have to worry about.

and nuclear war isn't the only thing we have to worry about.

and nuclear war isn't the only thing we have to worry about.

Human caused climate change poses a serious threat to

Human caused climate change poses a serious threat to

ecosystems and the most vulnerable people around the world.

ecosystems and the most vulnerable people around the world.

ecosystems and the most vulnerable people around the world.

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