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SAGAN:
Martians.
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00:00:53,023 --> 00:00:56,720
Why so many speculations
and fantasies about Martians...
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00:00:56,927 --> 00:01:01,057
...rather than Saturnians, say,
or Plutonians?
4
00:01:01,265 --> 00:01:04,632
Because Mars seems,
at first glance, very Earth-like.
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00:01:04,835 --> 00:01:07,395
It's the nearest planet
whose surface we can see.
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00:01:07,604 --> 00:01:10,471
There are polar icecaps,
drifting white clouds...
7
00:01:10,674 --> 00:01:13,905
...raging dust storms,
seasonally changing patterns...
8
00:01:14,111 --> 00:01:15,635
...even a 24-hour day.
9
00:01:15,846 --> 00:01:20,010
It's tempting to think of it
as an inhabited world.
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00:01:21,451 --> 00:01:25,285
Mars has become
a kind of mythic arena...
11
00:01:25,489 --> 00:01:29,755
...onto which we've projected
our earthly hopes and fears.
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00:01:29,960 --> 00:01:33,521
The most tantalizing myths
about Mars have proved wrong.
13
00:01:33,730 --> 00:01:36,995
So a few people have swung
to the opposite extreme...
14
00:01:37,200 --> 00:01:40,169
...and concluded that
the planet is of little interest.
15
00:01:40,370 --> 00:01:43,771
They've begun to sing
blues for the Red Planet.
16
00:01:43,974 --> 00:01:47,068
But the real Mars is
a world of wonders.
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00:01:47,277 --> 00:01:51,077
Its future prospects are
far more intriguing...
18
00:01:51,281 --> 00:01:53,511
...than our past apprehensions
about it.
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00:01:53,717 --> 00:01:57,380
In our time, we have sifted
the sands of Mars...
20
00:01:57,588 --> 00:01:59,522
...established a presence there...
21
00:01:59,723 --> 00:02:02,920
...and fulfilled a century of dreams.
22
00:02:08,599 --> 00:02:12,968
The most startling dream of Mars
was that of H.G. Wells...
23
00:02:13,170 --> 00:02:17,800
...who in 1897 wrote
The War of the Worlds.
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00:02:18,809 --> 00:02:22,472
NARRATOR: "No one would have believed
in the end of the 19th century...
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00:02:22,679 --> 00:02:26,581
...that this world was being
watched keenly and closely...
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00:02:26,783 --> 00:02:29,775
...by intelligences
greater than man's...
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00:02:29,987 --> 00:02:32,547
...and yet as mortal as his own.
28
00:03:07,290 --> 00:03:11,659
As men busied themselves
about their various concerns...
29
00:03:11,862 --> 00:03:13,989
...they were scrutinized
and studied...
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00:03:14,431 --> 00:03:16,695
...perhaps almost
as narrowly as a man...
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00:03:16,900 --> 00:03:19,300
...with a microscope
might scrutinize...
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00:03:19,503 --> 00:03:22,495
...the transient creatures
that swarm and multiply...
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00:03:22,706 --> 00:03:24,571
...in a drop of water.
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00:03:37,421 --> 00:03:41,585
With infinite complacency,
men went to and fro over this globe...
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00:03:41,792 --> 00:03:43,726
...about their little affairs...
36
00:03:44,394 --> 00:03:48,455
...serene in their assurance
of their empire over matter.
37
00:03:49,833 --> 00:03:54,202
It's possible that the infusoria
under the microscope do the same.
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00:03:54,671 --> 00:03:57,731
(CHILDREN SINGING)
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00:04:12,322 --> 00:04:14,813
No one thought of
the older worlds of space...
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00:04:15,025 --> 00:04:16,890
...as sources of human danger...
41
00:04:17,427 --> 00:04:20,863
...or thought of them only to dismiss
the idea of life upon them...
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00:04:21,064 --> 00:04:23,726
...as impossible or improbable.
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(CLAPPING)
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00:04:50,660 --> 00:04:52,992
It is curious to recall...
45
00:04:53,196 --> 00:04:56,757
...some of the mental habits
of those departed days.
46
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At most, terrestrial men fancied...
47
00:05:00,670 --> 00:05:04,936
...there might be other men upon Mars,
perhaps inferior to themselves...
48
00:05:05,142 --> 00:05:08,111
...and ready to welcome
a missionary enterprise.
49
00:05:12,048 --> 00:05:14,141
Yet across the gulf of space...
50
00:05:14,351 --> 00:05:17,843
...intellects vast
and cool and unsympathetic...
51
00:05:18,054 --> 00:05:20,181
...regarded this Earth
with envious eyes...
52
00:05:20,757 --> 00:05:25,285
...and slowly and surely
drew their plans against us."
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00:05:35,038 --> 00:05:37,063
(CHEERING)
54
00:05:41,912 --> 00:05:45,177
SAGAN: Wells' novel captured
the popular imagination...
55
00:05:45,382 --> 00:05:47,612
...in the late Victorian era.
56
00:05:47,818 --> 00:05:50,878
This was a time when
the automobile was a novelty...
57
00:05:51,087 --> 00:05:52,554
...when the pace of life...
58
00:05:52,756 --> 00:05:55,350
...was still determined
by the speed of the horse.
59
00:05:55,559 --> 00:05:59,723
Into this world, Wells introduced
an interplanetary fantasy...
60
00:06:00,063 --> 00:06:04,159
...with spaceships, ray guns
and implacable aliens.
61
00:06:04,367 --> 00:06:08,531
These were original
and disquieting possibilities.
62
00:06:11,541 --> 00:06:13,805
The Martians of H.G. Wells...
63
00:06:14,010 --> 00:06:17,639
...were not merely minor variations
on a human theme.
64
00:06:17,848 --> 00:06:20,874
Instead, they were
the evolutionary product...
65
00:06:21,084 --> 00:06:24,383
...of a totally alien environment.
66
00:06:32,696 --> 00:06:35,790
Forty years later,
this fantasy was still able...
67
00:06:35,999 --> 00:06:40,436
...to frighten millions
in war-jittery America...
68
00:06:40,637 --> 00:06:44,664
...when it was dramatized for radio
by the young Orson Welles.
69
00:06:52,048 --> 00:06:54,915
A few years before
The War of the Worlds was published...
70
00:06:55,118 --> 00:06:57,382
...another, quite different
vision of Martians...
71
00:06:57,587 --> 00:06:59,885
...was forming in the mind
of a wealthy Bostonian...
72
00:07:00,090 --> 00:07:02,115
...named Percival Lowell.
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00:07:04,594 --> 00:07:07,563
The Martians of H.G. Wells
were a way for the novelist...
74
00:07:07,764 --> 00:07:11,530
...to examine contemporary society
through alien eyes.
75
00:07:11,735 --> 00:07:15,671
But the Martians of Percival Lowell
were, he believed...
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00:07:15,872 --> 00:07:17,430
...very real.
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00:07:21,478 --> 00:07:25,938
It was here that
the most elaborate claims...
78
00:07:26,149 --> 00:07:29,516
...in support of life on Mars
were developed.
79
00:07:33,590 --> 00:07:37,617
Lowell dabbled in astronomy
as a young man.
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00:07:42,799 --> 00:07:45,427
He went off to Harvard.
81
00:07:48,571 --> 00:07:52,268
He had a semiofficial
diplomatic appointment to Korea...
82
00:07:54,978 --> 00:07:57,469
...and otherwise engaged
in the usual pursuits...
83
00:07:57,681 --> 00:08:00,081
...of the wealthy for his time.
84
00:08:01,017 --> 00:08:03,918
But his lifelong love...
85
00:08:04,287 --> 00:08:06,983
...was the planet Mars.
86
00:08:08,425 --> 00:08:10,916
Lowell was electrified...
87
00:08:11,127 --> 00:08:14,187
...by the announcement in 1877...
88
00:08:14,397 --> 00:08:17,457
...by an Italian astronomer,
Giovanni Schiaparelli...
89
00:08:17,667 --> 00:08:20,693
...of canali on Mars.
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00:08:21,338 --> 00:08:23,772
Schiaparelli had reported...
91
00:08:23,974 --> 00:08:26,841
...during a close approach
of Mars to the Earth...
92
00:08:27,043 --> 00:08:30,706
...an intricate network of
single and double straight lines...
93
00:08:30,914 --> 00:08:34,941
...crisscrossing
the bright areas of Mars.
94
00:08:36,953 --> 00:08:40,582
Now, canali in Italian
means "channels" or "grooves"...
95
00:08:40,790 --> 00:08:45,022
...but it was promptly translated
into English as canals...
96
00:08:45,228 --> 00:08:48,197
...a word which understandably has...
97
00:08:48,398 --> 00:08:51,333
...a certain implication
of intelligent design.
98
00:08:51,768 --> 00:08:55,864
A Mars-mania swept through
Europe and America...
99
00:08:56,072 --> 00:08:59,803
...and Percival Lowell found
himself caught up in it.
100
00:09:01,511 --> 00:09:04,810
In 1892, his eyesight failing...
101
00:09:05,015 --> 00:09:09,679
...Schiaparelli announced
he was giving up observing Mars.
102
00:09:11,488 --> 00:09:14,889
Lowell resolved
to continue the work.
103
00:09:16,426 --> 00:09:18,587
(ROOF CREAKS)
104
00:09:20,897 --> 00:09:23,991
He wanted
a first-rate observing site...
105
00:09:24,367 --> 00:09:27,928
...undisturbed by clouds
or city lights...
106
00:09:28,138 --> 00:09:30,197
...and marked by good seeing.
107
00:09:30,407 --> 00:09:34,241
"Seeing" is the astronomer's term
for a steady atmosphere...
108
00:09:34,444 --> 00:09:37,743
...through which the shimmering
of an astronomical image...
109
00:09:37,947 --> 00:09:39,778
...in the telescope is minimized.
110
00:09:47,290 --> 00:09:50,782
Lowell built his observatory
far away from home...
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00:09:50,994 --> 00:09:55,863
...on Mars Hill,
here in Flagstaff, Arizona.
112
00:10:12,549 --> 00:10:16,918
Lowell sketched
the surface features of Mars...
113
00:10:17,620 --> 00:10:21,522
...and particularly the canals,
which mesmerized him.
114
00:10:21,858 --> 00:10:25,419
Now, observations of this sort
aren't easy.
115
00:10:25,628 --> 00:10:28,119
You put in long hours
at the telescope...
116
00:10:28,331 --> 00:10:30,390
...in the chill of the early morning.
117
00:10:30,600 --> 00:10:33,398
Most of the time,
the seeing is crummy.
118
00:10:33,603 --> 00:10:35,400
When the seeing is bad...
119
00:10:35,605 --> 00:10:38,574
...the image of Mars
blurs and distorts...
120
00:10:38,775 --> 00:10:41,266
...and you have to ignore
what you've observed.
121
00:10:41,478 --> 00:10:45,778
But occasionally the image steadies
and the features of the planet...
122
00:10:45,982 --> 00:10:49,042
...marvelously flash out at you.
123
00:10:49,252 --> 00:10:51,311
You must then remember
what you've seen...
124
00:10:51,521 --> 00:10:53,580
...and accurately commit it to paper.
125
00:10:53,790 --> 00:10:56,281
You must put
your preconceptions aside...
126
00:10:56,493 --> 00:10:59,326
...and with an open mind,
set down the wonders...
127
00:10:59,529 --> 00:11:01,929
...that Mars holds in store for us.
128
00:11:02,132 --> 00:11:05,727
This is Percival Lowell's
own notebook.
129
00:11:05,935 --> 00:11:08,495
Here's what he thought he saw.
130
00:11:09,506 --> 00:11:13,374
Bright and dark areas,
a hint of a polar cap...
131
00:11:13,643 --> 00:11:17,101
...and canals.
Lots and lots of canals.
132
00:11:22,886 --> 00:11:24,353
Lowell believed...
133
00:11:24,954 --> 00:11:29,584
...that he was seeing
a globe-girdling network...
134
00:11:29,792 --> 00:11:32,260
...of great irrigation canals...
135
00:11:32,462 --> 00:11:35,329
...carrying water
from the melting polar caps...
136
00:11:35,532 --> 00:11:38,660
...to the thirsty inhabitants
of the equatorial cities.
137
00:11:39,235 --> 00:11:41,897
He believed
the planet was inhabited...
138
00:11:42,105 --> 00:11:44,232
...by an older and wiser race...
139
00:11:44,440 --> 00:11:47,102
...perhaps very different from us.
140
00:11:47,310 --> 00:11:48,402
He believed...
141
00:11:48,611 --> 00:11:51,705
...that the seasonal changes
in the dark areas...
142
00:11:51,915 --> 00:11:55,373
...were due to the growth
and decay of vegetation.
143
00:11:55,585 --> 00:11:58,850
He believed that
the planet was Earth-like.
144
00:12:01,224 --> 00:12:04,352
All in all, he believed too much.
145
00:12:14,804 --> 00:12:18,467
Lowell's Martians were a dying race.
146
00:12:18,675 --> 00:12:21,906
Their once-great cities
had fallen into ruins.
147
00:12:22,111 --> 00:12:25,205
Lowell believed that
the Martian climate was changing...
148
00:12:25,415 --> 00:12:28,612
...that the precious water
was trickling away into space...
149
00:12:28,818 --> 00:12:32,185
...that the planet
was becoming a desert world.
150
00:12:32,388 --> 00:12:36,324
The canals, he thought,
were a last desperate measure...
151
00:12:36,526 --> 00:12:41,190
...a heroic engineering effort
to conserve the scarce water.
152
00:12:41,397 --> 00:12:45,231
But their technology, although
far more advanced than ours...
153
00:12:45,435 --> 00:12:49,769
...was inadequate to stem
a planetary catastrophe.
154
00:13:34,751 --> 00:13:38,380
The most serious contemporary
challenge to Lowell's ideas...
155
00:13:38,588 --> 00:13:40,317
...came from an unlikely source:
156
00:13:40,523 --> 00:13:43,185
The biologist Alfred Russel Wallace...
157
00:13:43,393 --> 00:13:46,385
...co-discoverer of evolution
by natural selection.
158
00:13:46,596 --> 00:13:49,622
Wallace correctly showed
that the air on Mars...
159
00:13:49,832 --> 00:13:51,993
...was much too cold and thin...
160
00:13:52,201 --> 00:13:54,465
...to permit the existence
of liquid water.
161
00:13:54,671 --> 00:13:58,334
He wrote that
"only a race of madmen...
162
00:13:58,541 --> 00:14:01,476
...would build canals
under such conditions."
163
00:14:03,579 --> 00:14:07,310
Lowell's Martians
were benign and hopeful...
164
00:14:07,517 --> 00:14:09,348
...even a little godlike...
165
00:14:09,552 --> 00:14:12,214
...very different
from the malevolent menace...
166
00:14:12,422 --> 00:14:16,950
...posed by H.G. Wells and Orson
Welles in The War of the Worlds.
167
00:14:17,260 --> 00:14:20,889
Both sets of ideas passed
into the public imagination...
168
00:14:21,097 --> 00:14:23,895
...through Sunday supplements
and science fiction...
169
00:14:24,300 --> 00:14:28,464
...and excited generations
of 8-year-olds into fantasizing...
170
00:14:28,671 --> 00:14:31,663
...that they themselves
might one day voyage...
171
00:14:31,874 --> 00:14:33,899
...to the distant planet Mars.
172
00:14:35,345 --> 00:14:37,711
I remember reading
with breathless fascination...
173
00:14:37,914 --> 00:14:40,405
...the Mars novels
of Edgar Rice Burroughs.
174
00:14:40,616 --> 00:14:42,811
I journeyed with John Carter...
175
00:14:43,019 --> 00:14:45,715
...gentleman adventurer
from Virginia...
176
00:14:45,922 --> 00:14:50,052
...to Barsoom, as Mars
was known by its inhabitants.
177
00:14:50,960 --> 00:14:55,158
Wandering among the beasts
of burden called thoats...
178
00:14:55,365 --> 00:14:58,095
...winning the hand of
the lovely Dejah Thoris...
179
00:14:58,301 --> 00:15:00,428
...Princess of Helium...
180
00:15:00,636 --> 00:15:04,834
...and befriending
a 10-foot-high green fighting man...
181
00:15:05,041 --> 00:15:06,633
...named Tars Tarkas...
182
00:15:06,843 --> 00:15:10,506
...as the moons of Mars
hurtled overhead...
183
00:15:10,713 --> 00:15:13,204
...on a summer's evening on Barsoom.
184
00:15:45,081 --> 00:15:48,244
It aroused generations
of 8-year-olds...
185
00:15:48,451 --> 00:15:49,713
...myself among them...
186
00:15:49,919 --> 00:15:53,286
...to consider the exploration of
the planets as a real possibility...
187
00:15:53,489 --> 00:15:57,516
...to wonder whether we ourselves
might one day venture...
188
00:15:57,727 --> 00:16:00,161
...to the distant planet Mars.
189
00:16:00,363 --> 00:16:04,265
John Carter got to Barsoom
by standing in an open field...
190
00:16:04,467 --> 00:16:08,665
...spreading his hands
and wishing hard at Mars.
191
00:16:08,871 --> 00:16:12,637
I can remember spending
many an hour in my boyhood...
192
00:16:12,842 --> 00:16:15,402
...arms resolutely outstretched...
193
00:16:15,611 --> 00:16:18,478
...in an open field in twilight...
194
00:16:18,681 --> 00:16:23,482
...imploring what I believed
to be Mars to transport me there.
195
00:16:24,187 --> 00:16:25,848
It never worked.
196
00:16:26,155 --> 00:16:28,521
There had to be some better way.
197
00:16:29,992 --> 00:16:33,587
And there was.
The real road to Mars was opened...
198
00:16:33,796 --> 00:16:35,764
...by a boy who loved skyrockets.
199
00:16:37,099 --> 00:16:38,794
(BAND PLAYS)
200
00:16:49,812 --> 00:16:52,838
Fourth of July celebrations
in New England...
201
00:16:53,049 --> 00:16:56,177
...are much the same today
as they were in the 1890s.
202
00:17:12,935 --> 00:17:16,928
Then, as now, the highlight
of the day's festivities...
203
00:17:17,139 --> 00:17:19,869
...was a rousing fireworks display.
204
00:17:26,682 --> 00:17:30,778
That was the part that
Robert Goddard liked the best.
205
00:17:32,121 --> 00:17:35,557
By the time he was 16,
he was launching his own rockets.
206
00:17:36,759 --> 00:17:38,283
He wrote in his diary:
207
00:17:38,494 --> 00:17:41,725
"July 4, 1898:
208
00:17:42,064 --> 00:17:45,124
Fired cannon
and firecrackers all day.
209
00:17:45,334 --> 00:17:48,167
In evening, had five rockets."
210
00:17:48,371 --> 00:17:50,896
- You gonna light it now?
- Yes, I am.
211
00:18:00,416 --> 00:18:01,849
Wow!
212
00:18:02,351 --> 00:18:03,443
That same year...
213
00:18:03,786 --> 00:18:07,517
...The War of the Worlds was being
serialized in the Boston Post.
214
00:18:07,723 --> 00:18:10,556
Goddard eagerly read every word.
215
00:18:14,864 --> 00:18:17,389
The Boston newspapers
were also reporting...
216
00:18:17,600 --> 00:18:20,398
...intriguing conjectures
by a Professor Lowell...
217
00:18:20,603 --> 00:18:23,367
...whose lectures
Goddard would later attend.
218
00:18:31,614 --> 00:18:35,345
The images of Mars spun
by Wells and Lowell...
219
00:18:35,551 --> 00:18:37,815
...beguiled the young Goddard...
220
00:18:39,221 --> 00:18:40,882
...and at age 17...
221
00:18:41,090 --> 00:18:43,615
...on October 19, 1899...
222
00:18:43,826 --> 00:18:46,659
...they crystallized
into an overwhelming vision...
223
00:18:46,862 --> 00:18:50,855
...that provided the direction
and purpose of his life.
224
00:18:57,840 --> 00:18:59,569
From the high branches...
225
00:18:59,775 --> 00:19:02,972
...of an old cherry tree
on his family's farm...
226
00:19:03,179 --> 00:19:08,048
...Goddard saw a way to do more
than just speculate about Mars.
227
00:19:16,759 --> 00:19:19,227
Before anyone had ever flown
in an airplane...
228
00:19:19,428 --> 00:19:21,487
...or listened to a radio...
229
00:19:21,697 --> 00:19:25,064
...Goddard decided
to invent a machine...
230
00:19:25,267 --> 00:19:28,828
...that would voyage
to the planet Mars.
231
00:20:00,770 --> 00:20:04,262
For the rest of his life, he was
to commemorate that October day...
232
00:20:04,473 --> 00:20:06,964
...as his anniversary day...
233
00:20:07,176 --> 00:20:09,974
...the birthday of his great dream.
234
00:20:14,583 --> 00:20:18,781
By the 1920s, after years of
studying physics and engineering...
235
00:20:18,988 --> 00:20:22,924
...he was experimenting
with liquid fuel rockets.
236
00:20:36,072 --> 00:20:39,439
In order to build a rocket capable
of reaching high altitudes...
237
00:20:39,642 --> 00:20:43,840
...Goddard had to create the principles
of an entirely new technology.
238
00:20:44,046 --> 00:20:46,105
He invented the basic components...
239
00:20:46,315 --> 00:20:48,715
...that propel, stabilize...
240
00:20:48,918 --> 00:20:51,409
...and guide the modern rocket.
241
00:21:08,838 --> 00:21:11,671
It was painstaking and difficult work.
242
00:21:11,874 --> 00:21:15,139
But Goddard took
the many setbacks in stride.
243
00:21:18,247 --> 00:21:20,715
He sifted the wreckage
of each experiment...
244
00:21:20,916 --> 00:21:23,384
...for clues to guide the next.
245
00:21:25,554 --> 00:21:29,251
Constantly refining old techniques
and inventing new ones...
246
00:21:29,458 --> 00:21:33,861
...he gradually raised the rocket
from a dangerous toy...
247
00:21:34,230 --> 00:21:37,893
...and set it on its way to becoming
an interplanetary vehicle.
248
00:21:50,112 --> 00:21:53,013
Goddard died in 1945...
249
00:21:53,215 --> 00:21:55,706
...before a rocket had ever
left the planet Earth.
250
00:21:55,918 --> 00:21:58,318
Although Mars always
remained his objective...
251
00:21:58,521 --> 00:22:01,581
...Goddard knew that such a goal
would be ridiculed.
252
00:22:01,791 --> 00:22:05,989
In public he advocated
the more modest objective...
253
00:22:06,195 --> 00:22:08,527
...of flying to the moon.
254
00:22:13,068 --> 00:22:16,799
Those boyhood dreams of voyages
to the moon and Mars...
255
00:22:17,006 --> 00:22:19,566
...shared by Goddard
with his contemporary...
256
00:22:19,775 --> 00:22:23,176
...a Russian scientist named
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky...
257
00:22:23,379 --> 00:22:27,713
...were fulfilled only
a few decades after their deaths.
258
00:22:27,917 --> 00:22:32,149
But as it turned out, the first
planet to be explored by rocket...
259
00:22:32,354 --> 00:22:33,651
...was the Earth.
260
00:22:43,566 --> 00:22:45,591
Now, imagine yourself a visitor...
261
00:22:45,801 --> 00:22:48,429
...from some other
and quite alien planet.
262
00:22:48,637 --> 00:22:51,333
You approach the Earth
with no preconceptions.
263
00:22:51,540 --> 00:22:55,032
Is the place inhabited?
At what point can you decide?
264
00:22:55,244 --> 00:22:58,338
When we look at the whole Earth,
there are no signs of life.
265
00:22:58,547 --> 00:23:01,141
We must examine it more closely.
266
00:23:01,350 --> 00:23:04,945
If there are intelligent beings,
maybe they create structures...
267
00:23:05,154 --> 00:23:08,180
...which can be seen at
a resolution of a few kilometers.
268
00:23:08,390 --> 00:23:10,483
Yet at this level of detail...
269
00:23:10,693 --> 00:23:14,094
...even a great river valley
seems utterly lifeless.
270
00:23:14,630 --> 00:23:16,257
There is no sign of life...
271
00:23:16,465 --> 00:23:19,127
...intelligent or otherwise
in Washington, D. C...
272
00:23:20,469 --> 00:23:21,936
...or Moscow...
273
00:23:24,240 --> 00:23:25,764
...or Tokyo...
274
00:23:27,142 --> 00:23:28,040
...or Peking.
275
00:23:28,244 --> 00:23:31,543
If there are intelligent beings,
they have not much modified...
276
00:23:31,747 --> 00:23:35,615
...the landscape into geometrical
patterns at kilometer resolution.
277
00:23:35,818 --> 00:23:38,787
But when we improve
the resolution tenfold...
278
00:23:38,988 --> 00:23:42,014
...when we see detail
as small as 100 meters across...
279
00:23:42,224 --> 00:23:43,851
...the size of a football field...
280
00:23:44,059 --> 00:23:45,959
...the situation changes.
281
00:23:50,599 --> 00:23:54,433
Many places on Earth seem suddenly
to crystallize out...
282
00:23:54,637 --> 00:23:58,164
...revealing an intricate pattern
of straight lines...
283
00:23:58,374 --> 00:24:02,333
...squares, rectangles and circles.
284
00:24:06,916 --> 00:24:10,682
Canals, roads,
circular irrigation patterns...
285
00:24:10,886 --> 00:24:13,855
...all suggest intelligent life
with a passion...
286
00:24:14,056 --> 00:24:17,423
...for Euclidean geometry
and territoriality.
287
00:24:17,626 --> 00:24:20,925
On this scale,
intelligent life can be discerned.
288
00:24:21,130 --> 00:24:22,256
Boston...
289
00:24:23,432 --> 00:24:25,195
...and Washington...
290
00:24:27,336 --> 00:24:28,394
...and New York.
291
00:24:28,604 --> 00:24:32,802
At 10-meter resolution, we also
discover that the Earthlings...
292
00:24:33,008 --> 00:24:34,873
...like to build up.
293
00:24:38,580 --> 00:24:41,549
At twilight or night,
other things are visible:
294
00:24:41,750 --> 00:24:44,378
Oil well fires in the Persian Gulf...
295
00:24:44,753 --> 00:24:47,347
...or the bright lights
of large cities.
296
00:24:48,590 --> 00:24:51,650
At a meter resolution,
we make out individual organisms:
297
00:24:51,860 --> 00:24:54,226
Seals on ice floes...
298
00:24:55,130 --> 00:24:57,394
...or people on skis.
299
00:25:00,569 --> 00:25:04,005
Intelligent life on Earth
first reveals itself...
300
00:25:04,206 --> 00:25:07,767
...through the geometric regularity
of its constructions.
301
00:25:07,977 --> 00:25:11,003
If Lowell's canal network existed,
the conclusion that...
302
00:25:11,213 --> 00:25:15,172
...intelligent beings inhabit
that planet might be compelling.
303
00:25:15,384 --> 00:25:17,818
But there is no canal network.
304
00:25:18,020 --> 00:25:21,046
Our unmanned spacecraft
have examined Mars...
305
00:25:21,256 --> 00:25:23,816
...with 1000 times more detail...
306
00:25:24,026 --> 00:25:28,326
...than any fleeting glimpse available
through Percival Lowell's telescope.
307
00:25:28,530 --> 00:25:32,398
There is no question that his Martian
canals were of intelligent origin.
308
00:25:32,601 --> 00:25:34,091
The only question was...
309
00:25:34,303 --> 00:25:37,636
...which side of the telescope
the intelligence was on.
310
00:25:37,840 --> 00:25:42,470
Where we have strong emotions,
we are liable to fool ourselves.
311
00:25:42,678 --> 00:25:47,012
Yet even without the canals,
the exploration of Mars evokes...
312
00:25:47,216 --> 00:25:49,377
...the kind of rapture that...
313
00:25:49,585 --> 00:25:52,713
...Columbus or Marco Polo
must have felt.
314
00:25:55,591 --> 00:25:57,559
We see many impact craters...
315
00:25:57,760 --> 00:26:01,560
...but we find no canals.
None at all.
316
00:26:02,431 --> 00:26:04,661
There are fault lines
in the surface...
317
00:26:04,867 --> 00:26:08,564
...and complex patterns
of ridges and valleys...
318
00:26:08,771 --> 00:26:12,229
...but they're all far too small
and in the wrong places...
319
00:26:12,441 --> 00:26:14,170
...to be Lowell's canals.
320
00:26:14,376 --> 00:26:17,436
And they don't seem
to be manufactured.
321
00:26:19,081 --> 00:26:20,708
There are many signs of water.
322
00:26:20,916 --> 00:26:24,579
Ancient river valleys wind
their way among the craters.
323
00:26:24,787 --> 00:26:27,915
Nergal Valley, named
after the Babylonian war god...
324
00:26:28,123 --> 00:26:32,287
...is 1000 kilometers long
and a billion years old.
325
00:26:32,494 --> 00:26:34,325
There seems to have been a time...
326
00:26:34,530 --> 00:26:37,693
...when Mars was warmer
and wetter than it is today.
327
00:26:38,901 --> 00:26:41,734
I wonder if life ever arose...
328
00:26:41,937 --> 00:26:46,636
...in the muddy backwaters
of these great river systems.
329
00:26:47,810 --> 00:26:50,108
The waters flowed at the same time...
330
00:26:50,312 --> 00:26:54,305
...that the great volcanoes
of the Tharsis Plateau were made.
331
00:26:54,950 --> 00:26:59,011
Before the present continents
of Earth were formed...
332
00:26:59,221 --> 00:27:02,622
...it was a very lively epoch on Mars.
333
00:27:04,326 --> 00:27:06,590
Equally old is the Mariner Valley...
334
00:27:06,795 --> 00:27:10,162
...a strange, vast, mist-filled chasm.
335
00:27:10,365 --> 00:27:14,995
If it were on Earth, it would stretch
from New York to Los Angeles.
336
00:27:15,204 --> 00:27:18,833
Landslides and avalanches
are slowly eroding its walls...
337
00:27:19,041 --> 00:27:21,202
...which collapse
to the floor of the valley.
338
00:27:21,410 --> 00:27:24,243
There, the winds remove
the particles...
339
00:27:24,446 --> 00:27:27,472
...and create immense
sand dune fields.
340
00:27:28,951 --> 00:27:31,317
Signs of high winds are all over Mars.
341
00:27:31,520 --> 00:27:34,250
Often craters have,
trailing behind them...
342
00:27:34,456 --> 00:27:38,790
...long streaks of bright or dark
material, blown out by the winds...
343
00:27:38,994 --> 00:27:42,987
...natural weathervanes
on the Martian surface.
344
00:27:43,365 --> 00:27:46,300
For the sand to be blown about
in the thin Martian atmosphere...
345
00:27:46,502 --> 00:27:48,129
...the winds have to be fast...
346
00:27:48,337 --> 00:27:51,932
...sometimes approaching
half the speed of sound.
347
00:27:52,741 --> 00:27:56,507
But some of the patterns
are so odd and intricate...
348
00:27:56,712 --> 00:28:00,239
...that we cannot be sure
they're caused by windblown sand.
349
00:28:00,449 --> 00:28:04,112
And there are other strange markings:
350
00:28:04,319 --> 00:28:06,651
Furrowed ground, almost resembling...
351
00:28:06,855 --> 00:28:09,915
...a giant plowed field
a billion years old...
352
00:28:10,125 --> 00:28:13,390
...and one of the strangest
features on Mars...
353
00:28:13,595 --> 00:28:15,859
...the pyramids of Elysium...
354
00:28:16,064 --> 00:28:18,692
...10 times taller
than the pyramids of Egypt.
355
00:28:18,901 --> 00:28:22,132
Perhaps they're only mountains
sculpted by the fierce winds...
356
00:28:22,337 --> 00:28:25,306
...but perhaps they're something else.
357
00:28:34,650 --> 00:28:39,053
How marvelous it would be
to glide over the surface of Mars...
358
00:28:39,254 --> 00:28:41,848
...to fly over Olympus Mons...
359
00:28:42,057 --> 00:28:44,992
...the largest known volcano
in the solar system.
360
00:28:47,796 --> 00:28:49,855
The surface area of Mars
is exactly...
361
00:28:50,065 --> 00:28:52,590
...as large as
the land area of the Earth.
362
00:28:52,801 --> 00:28:56,760
It will be a long time before
this planet is thoroughly explored.
363
00:28:57,439 --> 00:29:01,273
The only canal of Percival Lowell
that corresponds to anything real...
364
00:29:01,476 --> 00:29:03,307
...is Mariner Valley.
365
00:29:04,246 --> 00:29:06,237
5000 kilometers long...
366
00:29:06,448 --> 00:29:08,678
...it's a little hard
to miss even from Earth.
367
00:29:08,884 --> 00:29:11,444
The Grand Canyon
of Arizona would fit...
368
00:29:11,653 --> 00:29:14,213
...into one of its minor tributaries.
369
00:29:14,423 --> 00:29:18,257
Someday we will careen
through the corridors...
370
00:29:18,460 --> 00:29:21,691
...of the Valley of the Mariners.
371
00:30:18,787 --> 00:30:22,348
To skim over
the sand dunes of Mars is...
372
00:30:22,557 --> 00:30:25,253
...as yet, only a dream.
373
00:30:38,106 --> 00:30:40,040
But we have, in fact...
374
00:30:40,242 --> 00:30:43,302
...sent robot emissaries to Mars.
375
00:30:43,512 --> 00:30:46,447
Their names are Viking 1...
376
00:30:46,682 --> 00:30:48,445
...and Viking 2.
377
00:30:49,184 --> 00:30:52,210
The problem was where to land them.
378
00:30:54,256 --> 00:30:58,158
We knew that the volcanoes
of Tharsis were too high.
379
00:30:58,360 --> 00:31:00,294
The thin Martian atmosphere
would not...
380
00:31:00,495 --> 00:31:03,259
...support our descent parachute.
381
00:31:03,465 --> 00:31:07,799
The great Mariner Valley was
too rough and unpredictable.
382
00:31:09,104 --> 00:31:11,129
The polar caps were too cold...
383
00:31:11,340 --> 00:31:14,332
...for the lander's nuclear
power plant to keep it warm.
384
00:31:14,676 --> 00:31:18,442
There were fascinating places
that were too high...
385
00:31:18,647 --> 00:31:21,673
...or too windy
or too hard or too soft...
386
00:31:21,883 --> 00:31:24,283
...or too rough or too cold.
387
00:31:25,053 --> 00:31:27,988
We worried about the safety
of every landing site.
388
00:31:28,190 --> 00:31:30,658
Perhaps we were too cautious.
389
00:31:30,859 --> 00:31:33,259
Eventually we selected two places.
390
00:31:33,462 --> 00:31:36,920
One, optimistically named Utopia...
391
00:31:37,132 --> 00:31:38,656
...for Viking 2...
392
00:31:38,867 --> 00:31:41,836
...and another,
8000 kilometers away...
393
00:31:42,037 --> 00:31:45,939
...not far from the confluents
of four great channels...
394
00:31:46,141 --> 00:31:48,166
...a landing site for Viking 1...
395
00:31:48,377 --> 00:31:50,675
...called Chryse...
396
00:31:51,113 --> 00:31:54,241
...Greek for "the land of gold."
397
00:32:00,021 --> 00:32:03,957
And so, after a voyage
of 100 million kilometers...
398
00:32:04,159 --> 00:32:06,719
...on July 20, 1976...
399
00:32:06,928 --> 00:32:09,658
...Viking 1 landed right on target...
400
00:32:09,865 --> 00:32:11,526
...in the Chryse Plain.
401
00:32:14,169 --> 00:32:17,070
It was less than 80 years
since Robert Goddard...
402
00:32:17,272 --> 00:32:18,830
...had his epiphanic vision...
403
00:32:19,040 --> 00:32:22,237
...in a cherry tree in Massachusetts.
404
00:32:33,722 --> 00:32:37,954
After hibernating for a year
during its interplanetary passage...
405
00:32:38,160 --> 00:32:41,721
...Viking reawakened on another world.
406
00:32:44,065 --> 00:32:46,431
The first thing it did
was to call home...
407
00:32:46,635 --> 00:32:49,297
...reporting a safe arrival.
408
00:32:50,572 --> 00:32:53,006
It began to rouse itself...
409
00:32:53,208 --> 00:32:55,870
...according to instructions
memorized earlier.
410
00:32:56,077 --> 00:33:00,070
First, it put out a finger
to test the Martian winds.
411
00:33:00,649 --> 00:33:03,117
Then, flexing its arm...
412
00:33:03,318 --> 00:33:06,549
...it flung off a protective glove.
413
00:33:07,722 --> 00:33:11,715
Next, Viking prepared
to sniff the air...
414
00:33:11,993 --> 00:33:14,018
...and taste the soil.
415
00:33:15,096 --> 00:33:16,222
Finally...
416
00:33:16,431 --> 00:33:19,992
...it opened its eyes for a look
at its new surroundings.
417
00:33:20,235 --> 00:33:22,533
(WHIRRING)
418
00:33:27,008 --> 00:33:31,604
Viking's first picture assignment
was to photograph its own foot.
419
00:33:31,980 --> 00:33:34,710
In case it were to sink
into Martian quicksand...
420
00:33:34,916 --> 00:33:37,578
...we wanted to know about it
before it disappeared.
421
00:33:37,819 --> 00:33:41,983
Back on Earth, we waited
breathlessly for the first images.
422
00:33:42,190 --> 00:33:46,490
Viking painted its picture
in vertical strokes, line by line...
423
00:33:46,695 --> 00:33:49,493
...until, with enormous relief,
we saw the footpad...
424
00:33:49,698 --> 00:33:52,360
...securely planted
in the Martian soil.
425
00:33:52,567 --> 00:33:57,504
This was the first image
ever returned from the surface of Mars.
426
00:34:03,211 --> 00:34:05,702
The cameras on each
Viking lander revealed...
427
00:34:05,914 --> 00:34:08,382
...a kind of rocky desert.
428
00:34:08,583 --> 00:34:10,380
Beyond the lander itself...
429
00:34:10,585 --> 00:34:12,416
...we saw for the first time...
430
00:34:12,621 --> 00:34:15,021
...the landscape of the Red Planet.
431
00:34:15,223 --> 00:34:18,886
It didn't look like an alien world.
432
00:34:19,227 --> 00:34:21,957
There were rocks and sand dunes...
433
00:34:22,163 --> 00:34:26,463
...and gently rolling hills
as natural and familiar...
434
00:34:26,668 --> 00:34:28,533
...as any landscape on Earth.
435
00:34:29,037 --> 00:34:33,098
Forever after, Mars would be a place.
436
00:34:38,914 --> 00:34:42,975
We found that the Martian air
was less than 1% as dense as ours...
437
00:34:43,184 --> 00:34:45,914
...and made mostly of carbon dioxide.
438
00:34:46,121 --> 00:34:48,885
There were smaller amounts
of nitrogen, argon...
439
00:34:49,090 --> 00:34:51,251
...water vapor and oxygen.
440
00:34:51,626 --> 00:34:54,561
There was almost no ozone.
So the surface wasn't protected...
441
00:34:54,763 --> 00:34:58,028
...from the sun's ultraviolet light
as it is on Earth.
442
00:34:58,833 --> 00:35:01,996
On the warmest days,
it was distinctly chilly...
443
00:35:02,203 --> 00:35:06,640
...and every night the temperatures
plunged to 100 below.
444
00:35:06,841 --> 00:35:11,778
In winter, the surface was dusted
with a thin layer of frost.
445
00:35:15,617 --> 00:35:19,849
The landing sites were chosen
because they were safe and flat.
446
00:35:20,255 --> 00:35:23,486
Even so, Viking revolutionized
our knowledge...
447
00:35:23,692 --> 00:35:25,660
...of this rusty world.
448
00:35:27,262 --> 00:35:29,890
I would, of course, have been
surprised to see...
449
00:35:30,098 --> 00:35:33,465
...a grizzled prospector emerge
from behind a dune...
450
00:35:33,668 --> 00:35:35,033
...leading his mule.
451
00:35:35,236 --> 00:35:39,570
Yet the idea seemed
strangely appropriate.
452
00:35:40,308 --> 00:35:42,242
But at least while we were watching...
453
00:35:42,444 --> 00:35:45,607
...no prospector wandered by.
454
00:35:50,418 --> 00:35:54,582
We studied with exceptional care
each picture the cameras radioed back.
455
00:35:54,789 --> 00:35:58,520
But there was no hint
of the canals of Barsoom...
456
00:35:58,727 --> 00:36:00,922
...no sultry princesses...
457
00:36:01,162 --> 00:36:05,155
...no 10-foot-tall
green fighting men...
458
00:36:05,934 --> 00:36:08,164
...no thoats, no footprints...
459
00:36:08,370 --> 00:36:11,339
...not even a cactus
or a kangaroo rat.
460
00:36:11,773 --> 00:36:15,265
Perhaps there was life
inside the rocks...
461
00:36:15,477 --> 00:36:17,035
...or under the ground.
462
00:36:17,512 --> 00:36:21,004
If so, it had left no traces.
463
00:36:27,589 --> 00:36:30,752
For most of its history,
the Earth had microbes...
464
00:36:30,959 --> 00:36:33,484
...but no living things
big enough to see.
465
00:36:34,162 --> 00:36:37,723
Perhaps the same is true for Mars.
466
00:36:54,849 --> 00:36:59,786
The Viking lander is a superbly
instrumented and designed machine.
467
00:37:00,522 --> 00:37:05,084
It extends human capabilities
to other and alien landscapes.
468
00:37:05,293 --> 00:37:09,525
By some standards, it's about
as smart as a grasshopper.
469
00:37:09,731 --> 00:37:12,894
By others, only as intelligent
as a bacterium.
470
00:37:13,101 --> 00:37:15,569
There's nothing demeaning
in these comparisons.
471
00:37:15,770 --> 00:37:20,036
It took nature hundreds of millions
of years to evolve a bacterium...
472
00:37:20,241 --> 00:37:22,539
...and billions of years
to make a grasshopper.
473
00:37:22,744 --> 00:37:25,235
With only a little experience
in this business...
474
00:37:25,447 --> 00:37:27,506
...we're getting pretty good at it.
475
00:37:29,517 --> 00:37:30,984
In both landing sites...
476
00:37:31,553 --> 00:37:34,386
...in Chryse and Utopia...
477
00:37:34,589 --> 00:37:37,854
...we've begun to dig
in the sands of Mars.
478
00:37:38,226 --> 00:37:40,660
On a very small scale,
such trenches...
479
00:37:40,862 --> 00:37:44,423
...are the first human engineering
works on another world.
480
00:37:55,643 --> 00:37:59,101
The robot arm
retrieves soil samples...
481
00:37:59,314 --> 00:38:02,841
...and deposits them
into several sifters.
482
00:38:04,185 --> 00:38:07,552
Then the soil is carried
to five experiments:
483
00:38:07,756 --> 00:38:09,587
Two on the chemistry of the soil...
484
00:38:09,791 --> 00:38:12,817
...and three to look
for microbial life.
485
00:38:14,129 --> 00:38:17,792
The Viking biology experiments
represent a pioneering first effort...
486
00:38:17,999 --> 00:38:20,297
...in the search for life
on another world.
487
00:38:20,502 --> 00:38:23,733
The results are
tantalizing, annoying...
488
00:38:23,938 --> 00:38:25,929
...provocative, stimulating...
489
00:38:26,141 --> 00:38:28,336
...and deeply ambiguous.
490
00:38:29,144 --> 00:38:31,908
By criteria established
before a launch...
491
00:38:32,113 --> 00:38:35,571
...two of the three Viking
microbiology experiments...
492
00:38:35,784 --> 00:38:38,753
...seem to have yielded
positive results.
493
00:38:38,953 --> 00:38:43,322
First, when Martian soil samples
are mixed together...
494
00:38:43,525 --> 00:38:45,755
...with an organic soup from Earth...
495
00:38:45,960 --> 00:38:49,760
...something in the soil
seems to have broken food down...
496
00:38:49,964 --> 00:38:53,127
...almost as if there were
little Martian microbes...
497
00:38:53,334 --> 00:38:56,394
...which metabolized, enjoyed...
498
00:38:56,604 --> 00:38:58,595
...the soup from Earth.
499
00:38:59,274 --> 00:39:02,175
Second, when gases from Earth...
500
00:39:02,377 --> 00:39:04,470
...were mixed together
with Martian soil...
501
00:39:05,280 --> 00:39:09,478
...something seems to have chemically
combined the gases with soil...
502
00:39:09,684 --> 00:39:12,585
...almost as if there were little
Martian microbes capable...
503
00:39:12,787 --> 00:39:17,383
...of synthesizing organic matter
from atmospheric gases.
504
00:39:17,592 --> 00:39:19,389
But the situation is complex.
505
00:39:19,594 --> 00:39:21,152
Mars is not the Earth.
506
00:39:21,362 --> 00:39:26,265
As the legacy of Percival Lowell
reminds us, we're liable to be fooled.
507
00:39:27,202 --> 00:39:30,137
Perhaps the ultraviolet light
from the sun...
508
00:39:30,338 --> 00:39:32,363
...strikes the Martian surface...
509
00:39:32,574 --> 00:39:36,977
...and makes some chemical
which can oxidize foodstuffs.
510
00:39:37,946 --> 00:39:40,540
Perhaps there is some catalyst
in the soil...
511
00:39:40,748 --> 00:39:44,548
...which can combine atmospheric gases
with the soil...
512
00:39:44,752 --> 00:39:47,084
...and make organic molecules.
513
00:39:47,722 --> 00:39:50,190
The red sands of Mars
were excavated...
514
00:39:50,391 --> 00:39:53,189
...seven times at
the two different landing sites...
515
00:39:53,487 --> 00:39:58,186
...as distant from each other
as Boston is from Baghdad.
516
00:39:58,926 --> 00:40:02,225
Whatever was giving these results
was probably all over Mars...
517
00:40:02,429 --> 00:40:06,297
...but was it life, or just
the chemistry of the soil?
518
00:40:06,667 --> 00:40:10,364
Studies suggest that a kind of clay
known to exist on Mars...
519
00:40:10,571 --> 00:40:14,701
...can serve as a catalyst to
accelerate in the absence of life...
520
00:40:14,908 --> 00:40:18,935
...chemical reactions which
resemble the activities of life.
521
00:40:21,081 --> 00:40:24,141
It may be that in the early history
of the Earth, before life...
522
00:40:24,351 --> 00:40:28,549
...there were little cycles,
chemical cycles running in the soil...
523
00:40:28,755 --> 00:40:31,849
...something like photosynthesis
and respiration...
524
00:40:32,059 --> 00:40:36,587
...which were then incorporated
by biology once life arose.
525
00:40:37,831 --> 00:40:42,530
There may be life elsewhere than
in the two small sites we examined.
526
00:40:42,736 --> 00:40:47,173
Or perhaps there's life
of a different sort all over Mars.
527
00:40:47,374 --> 00:40:51,003
Life is just a kind of chemistry
of sufficient complexity...
528
00:40:51,211 --> 00:40:53,975
...to permit reproduction
and evolution.
529
00:40:54,181 --> 00:40:57,048
I wonder if we'll ever find
a specimen of life based...
530
00:40:57,251 --> 00:40:59,116
...not on organic molecules...
531
00:40:59,319 --> 00:41:03,119
...but on something else,
something more exotic.
532
00:41:06,193 --> 00:41:09,856
The Viking experiments found
that the Martian soil is not...
533
00:41:10,063 --> 00:41:12,623
...loaded with organic remains...
534
00:41:12,833 --> 00:41:15,324
...of once living creatures.
535
00:41:15,536 --> 00:41:20,337
Maybe the surface's reactive chemistry
has destroyed organic molecules...
536
00:41:20,541 --> 00:41:22,304
...molecules based on carbon.
537
00:41:22,509 --> 00:41:24,409
Or maybe there's no life on Mars...
538
00:41:24,611 --> 00:41:27,978
...and all Viking found
was a funny soil chemistry.
539
00:41:28,181 --> 00:41:30,274
Or maybe there's life, okay...
540
00:41:30,484 --> 00:41:34,147
...but it's not based on organic
chemistry as much as life is on Earth.
541
00:41:35,389 --> 00:41:39,291
Personally, I don't think that's
a very likely possibility.
542
00:41:39,493 --> 00:41:42,826
I'm a carbon chauvinist.
I freely admit it.
543
00:41:43,030 --> 00:41:45,590
Carbon is tremendously abundant
in the cosmos...
544
00:41:45,799 --> 00:41:49,030
...and it makes marvelously complex
organic molecules...
545
00:41:49,236 --> 00:41:51,431
...that are terrifically
good for life.
546
00:41:51,638 --> 00:41:54,004
I'm also a water chauvinist.
547
00:41:54,207 --> 00:41:57,267
It's an ideal solvent
for organic molecules...
548
00:41:57,477 --> 00:42:01,243
...and it stays liquid over
a very wide range of temperatures.
549
00:42:01,448 --> 00:42:05,748
But sometimes I wonder,
could my fondness...
550
00:42:05,953 --> 00:42:08,922
...for these materials have
anything to do with the fact...
551
00:42:09,122 --> 00:42:11,352
...that I'm chiefly made up of them?
552
00:42:11,558 --> 00:42:16,086
Are we carbon and water-based because
these materials were abundant...
553
00:42:16,296 --> 00:42:18,764
...on the Earth at the time
of the origin of life?
554
00:42:18,966 --> 00:42:22,629
Might life elsewhere be based
on different stuff?
555
00:42:23,036 --> 00:42:24,799
(LIQUID GURGLES)
556
00:42:25,706 --> 00:42:29,904
I'm a collection of organic molecules
called Carl Sagan.
557
00:42:30,110 --> 00:42:33,204
You're a collection of almost
identical molecules...
558
00:42:33,413 --> 00:42:37,850
...with a different collective label.
But is that all?
559
00:42:38,051 --> 00:42:42,647
Is there nothing in here
but molecules?
560
00:42:42,889 --> 00:42:47,826
Some people find that idea
somehow demeaning to human dignity.
561
00:42:48,161 --> 00:42:52,393
But for myself, I find it
elevating and exhilarating...
562
00:42:52,599 --> 00:42:55,033
...to discover that we
live in a universe...
563
00:42:55,235 --> 00:42:58,966
...which permits the evolution
of molecular machines...
564
00:42:59,172 --> 00:43:02,767
...as intricate and subtle as we.
565
00:43:03,710 --> 00:43:08,272
The essence of life is not the atoms
and small molecules that go into us...
566
00:43:08,482 --> 00:43:11,349
...as the way, the ordering...
567
00:43:11,551 --> 00:43:14,179
...the way those molecules
are put together.
568
00:43:14,388 --> 00:43:16,879
Now, we sometimes read...
569
00:43:17,090 --> 00:43:20,150
...that the chemicals which make up
a human body are worth...
570
00:43:20,360 --> 00:43:24,296
...on the open market, only 97 cents
or $10, or some number like that.
571
00:43:24,631 --> 00:43:28,465
And it's depressing to find
our bodies valued at so little.
572
00:43:28,669 --> 00:43:31,331
But these estimates are for humans...
573
00:43:31,538 --> 00:43:35,065
...reduced to our simplest
possible components.
574
00:43:38,145 --> 00:43:41,273
What is all this stuff in front of me?
575
00:43:41,481 --> 00:43:46,009
These are exactly the atoms
that make up the human body...
576
00:43:46,219 --> 00:43:48,346
...and in the right proportions too.
577
00:43:48,555 --> 00:43:53,219
We're made mostly of water,
and that costs almost nothing.
578
00:43:53,427 --> 00:43:56,191
The carbon is counted as coal.
579
00:43:56,396 --> 00:43:59,126
The calcium in our bones is chalk.
580
00:43:59,332 --> 00:44:03,393
The nitrogen in our proteins
is liquid air.
581
00:44:03,603 --> 00:44:06,766
The iron in our blood
is rusty nails.
582
00:44:06,973 --> 00:44:09,498
Some phosphorus
and some trace elements.
583
00:44:09,943 --> 00:44:11,604
If we didn't know better...
584
00:44:11,812 --> 00:44:15,873
...we might be tempted
to take all these items...
585
00:44:16,083 --> 00:44:19,985
...and mix them together
in a container like this.
586
00:44:42,175 --> 00:44:43,608
And stir.
587
00:44:43,977 --> 00:44:45,774
We could stir all we want...
588
00:44:45,979 --> 00:44:49,540
...and at the end, all we'd have
is some boring mixture of atoms.
589
00:44:49,750 --> 00:44:51,513
How could we expect anything else?
590
00:44:52,018 --> 00:44:55,545
The beauty of a living thing
is not the atoms that go into it...
591
00:44:55,756 --> 00:44:57,724
...but the way those atoms
are put together:
592
00:44:57,924 --> 00:45:02,725
Information distilled over 4 billion
years of biological evolution.
593
00:45:02,929 --> 00:45:05,898
Incidentally, all the organisms
on the Earth are made...
594
00:45:06,099 --> 00:45:08,226
...essentially of that stuff.
595
00:45:08,435 --> 00:45:10,960
An eyedropper full of that liquid...
596
00:45:11,171 --> 00:45:15,574
...could be used to make
a caterpillar or a petunia...
597
00:45:15,776 --> 00:45:19,007
...if only we knew how to put
the components together.
598
00:45:20,347 --> 00:45:25,284
All life on Earth is made from
the same mixture of the same atoms.
599
00:45:25,819 --> 00:45:27,980
On another planet, the jars of life...
600
00:45:28,188 --> 00:45:32,090
...might be filled with very
different atoms and small molecules.
601
00:45:32,292 --> 00:45:36,228
But I think the life forms on many
worlds will consist, by and large...
602
00:45:36,429 --> 00:45:38,624
...of the same atoms
that are popular here...
603
00:45:38,832 --> 00:45:41,027
...maybe even the same big molecules.
604
00:45:41,234 --> 00:45:44,931
So I don't believe we can rescue
the idea of life on Mars...
605
00:45:45,138 --> 00:45:48,699
...by appealing to some
exotic chemistry.
606
00:45:50,343 --> 00:45:53,335
Sometimes we hear about
possible life forms...
607
00:45:53,547 --> 00:45:55,674
...in which silicon replaces carbon...
608
00:45:55,882 --> 00:45:58,646
...or perhaps, liquid ammonia
replaces liquid water.
609
00:45:58,852 --> 00:46:01,252
But at Martian temperatures,
there are no...
610
00:46:01,454 --> 00:46:05,754
...plausible silicon-based molecules
which might carry a genetic code.
611
00:46:05,959 --> 00:46:09,122
And ammonia is liquid
only under higher pressures...
612
00:46:09,329 --> 00:46:11,092
...and lower temperatures.
613
00:46:13,400 --> 00:46:17,461
Someday in the distant future
we might have a collection of jars...
614
00:46:17,671 --> 00:46:21,801
...each containing the elementary
biochemistry of another world.
615
00:46:22,042 --> 00:46:25,375
I don't know if there'll be
one labeled "Mars."
616
00:46:25,579 --> 00:46:26,876
But if there is...
617
00:46:27,080 --> 00:46:31,107
...I bet it will be
full of organic molecules.
618
00:46:34,921 --> 00:46:37,549
There's another way to search
for life on Mars...
619
00:46:37,757 --> 00:46:40,191
...to seek out the discoveries
and delights...
620
00:46:40,393 --> 00:46:43,191
...which that heterogeneous
environment promises us.
621
00:46:43,396 --> 00:46:47,093
One of the things that a grasshopper
can do but Viking can't...
622
00:46:47,300 --> 00:46:48,597
...is move.
623
00:46:48,802 --> 00:46:51,202
We landed in the dull places on Mars.
624
00:46:51,404 --> 00:46:56,341
For all the solid, scientific findings
and hints which Viking provided...
625
00:46:56,543 --> 00:47:01,344
...we know that there are many places
on the planet far more interesting.
626
00:47:01,548 --> 00:47:04,210
What we need is a roving vehicle...
627
00:47:04,417 --> 00:47:07,614
...with advanced experiments in
biology and organic chemistry...
628
00:47:07,821 --> 00:47:10,483
...able to land in the safe
but dull places...
629
00:47:10,690 --> 00:47:12,954
...and wander
to the interesting places.
630
00:47:23,303 --> 00:47:24,827
This roving vehicle...
631
00:47:25,038 --> 00:47:28,940
...was developed by the
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.
632
00:47:29,142 --> 00:47:32,600
It has a long list of dumb things
it knows not to do.
633
00:47:32,812 --> 00:47:37,408
A Mars rover hasn't got time to ask
if it should attempt a steep slope.
634
00:47:37,617 --> 00:47:39,847
Radio waves traveling
at the speed of light...
635
00:47:40,053 --> 00:47:42,283
...take 20 minutes
for the roundtrip to Earth.
636
00:47:42,489 --> 00:47:45,424
By the time it got an answer,
it might be...
637
00:47:45,625 --> 00:47:48,355
...a heap of twisted metal
at the bottom of a canyon.
638
00:47:48,561 --> 00:47:51,496
A rover has to think for itself.
639
00:47:56,937 --> 00:48:00,236
Imagine a rover with laser eyes
like this one...
640
00:48:00,440 --> 00:48:03,876
...but packed with sophisticated
biological and chemical instruments...
641
00:48:04,077 --> 00:48:07,513
...sampler arms, microscopes
and television cameras...
642
00:48:07,714 --> 00:48:10,979
...wandering over
the Martian landscape.
643
00:48:12,519 --> 00:48:15,511
It could drive to its own
horizon every day.
644
00:48:15,722 --> 00:48:18,987
A distant feature it barely
resolves at sunrise...
645
00:48:19,192 --> 00:48:23,595
...it can be sniffing and tasting
by nightfall.
646
00:48:28,768 --> 00:48:32,260
Billions of people could watch
the unfolding adventure...
647
00:48:32,472 --> 00:48:36,966
...on their TV sets as the rover
explores the ancient river bottoms...
648
00:48:37,177 --> 00:48:38,735
...or cautiously approaches...
649
00:48:38,945 --> 00:48:42,312
...the enigmatic pyramids of Elysium.
650
00:48:42,716 --> 00:48:46,015
A new age of discovery
would have begun.
651
00:48:49,155 --> 00:48:51,680
Most of the human species
would witness...
652
00:48:51,891 --> 00:48:55,088
...the exploration of another world.
653
00:49:00,367 --> 00:49:03,268
Only 80 years ago, we could come
no closer to Mars...
654
00:49:03,470 --> 00:49:06,803
...than straining to see
a tiny, shimmering image...
655
00:49:07,007 --> 00:49:09,567
...through a telescope in Arizona.
656
00:49:09,776 --> 00:49:13,678
Now our instruments have actually
touched down on the planet.
657
00:49:14,381 --> 00:49:19,148
Viking is a legacy of H.G. Wells...
658
00:49:19,352 --> 00:49:21,752
...Percival Lowell, Robert Goddard.
659
00:49:21,955 --> 00:49:26,153
Science is a collaborative enterprise
spanning the generations.
660
00:49:26,359 --> 00:49:31,092
When it permits us to see the far side
of some new horizon...
661
00:49:31,297 --> 00:49:33,390
...we remember those
who prepared the way...
662
00:49:33,600 --> 00:49:36,228
...seeing for them also.
663
00:49:38,738 --> 00:49:43,368
On each lander, there is a microdot
on which is written very small...
664
00:49:43,576 --> 00:49:45,806
...the names of 10,000
men and women...
665
00:49:46,012 --> 00:49:48,810
...responsible for Viking's
splendid achievement.
666
00:49:49,015 --> 00:49:52,507
One of the names on this microdot
belonged to a friend of mine:
667
00:49:52,719 --> 00:49:56,587
A remarkable microbiologist
named Wolf Vishniac.
668
00:49:56,790 --> 00:49:59,281
He was the first person
to build a machine...
669
00:49:59,492 --> 00:50:01,926
...to look for microbes
on another world.
670
00:50:02,862 --> 00:50:05,626
His friends called it the "Wolf Trap."
671
00:50:05,832 --> 00:50:08,232
It contained a liquid nutrient...
672
00:50:08,435 --> 00:50:11,404
...to which Martian soil
would be added...
673
00:50:11,604 --> 00:50:13,629
...and any microbes
that liked the food...
674
00:50:13,840 --> 00:50:17,435
...would grow in that nutrient
medium and cloud it.
675
00:50:17,644 --> 00:50:20,442
The Wolf Trap was selected
to go with Viking to Mars...
676
00:50:20,647 --> 00:50:24,879
...but NASA is especially vulnerable
to budget cuts...
677
00:50:25,085 --> 00:50:27,679
...and it was removed
as an economy measure.
678
00:50:27,887 --> 00:50:32,415
It was a terrible blow to Vishniac.
He'd worked 12 years on it.
679
00:50:32,625 --> 00:50:36,186
Others might have
stalked off the project...
680
00:50:36,396 --> 00:50:39,388
...but Vishniac was a gentle
and dedicated man.
681
00:50:39,599 --> 00:50:44,434
He decided instead to study the most
Mars-like environment on this planet:
682
00:50:44,637 --> 00:50:49,336
The dry valleys of Antarctica,
which were long thought to be lifeless.
683
00:50:53,713 --> 00:50:57,240
But Vishniac believed that if he
could find microbes growing...
684
00:50:57,450 --> 00:51:00,749
...in these arid polar wastes...
685
00:51:00,954 --> 00:51:04,515
...the chances of life on Mars
would improve.
686
00:51:07,760 --> 00:51:10,228
So in November 1973...
687
00:51:10,430 --> 00:51:12,660
...Vishniac was left
in a remote valley...
688
00:51:12,866 --> 00:51:16,165
...in the Asgard Mountains
of Antarctica.
689
00:51:16,936 --> 00:51:20,064
He set up hundreds of little
sample collectors...
690
00:51:20,673 --> 00:51:24,769
...simple versions of the Viking
microbiology experiments.
691
00:51:25,545 --> 00:51:26,569
On December 10th...
692
00:51:26,779 --> 00:51:29,475
...he left camp
to retrieve some samples...
693
00:51:29,682 --> 00:51:31,411
...and never returned.
694
00:51:32,018 --> 00:51:34,350
He had wandered
to an unexplored area...
695
00:51:34,554 --> 00:51:36,317
...apparently slipped on the ice...
696
00:51:36,523 --> 00:51:39,321
...and fell more than 100 meters.
697
00:51:40,093 --> 00:51:42,755
Maybe something had caught his eye...
698
00:51:42,962 --> 00:51:45,692
...a likely habitat for microbes...
699
00:51:45,899 --> 00:51:48,766
...or a patch of green
where none should be.
700
00:51:48,968 --> 00:51:51,232
The last entry in his notebook was:
701
00:51:51,437 --> 00:51:56,374
"Station 202 retrieved.
2230 hours.
702
00:51:56,676 --> 00:51:59,611
Soil temperature, minus 10 degrees.
703
00:51:59,812 --> 00:52:03,475
Air temperature, minus 16 degrees."
704
00:52:03,683 --> 00:52:07,449
It had been a typical
summer temperature...
705
00:52:07,687 --> 00:52:09,086
...for Mars.
706
00:52:09,689 --> 00:52:12,283
Some of his soil samples
were later returned...
707
00:52:12,492 --> 00:52:14,323
...and his colleagues discovered...
708
00:52:14,527 --> 00:52:17,621
...that there is life
in the dry valleys of Antarctica...
709
00:52:17,830 --> 00:52:20,924
...that life is even more tenacious
than we had imagined.
710
00:52:21,134 --> 00:52:25,969
That fact may turn out to be important
for the future history of Mars.
711
00:52:31,044 --> 00:52:32,875
There will be a time...
712
00:52:33,079 --> 00:52:35,547
...when Mars is thoroughly explored.
713
00:52:35,748 --> 00:52:38,876
What then?
What should we do with Mars?
714
00:52:39,819 --> 00:52:43,846
If there is life on Mars, then I
believe we should do nothing...
715
00:52:44,057 --> 00:52:45,888
...to disturb that life.
716
00:52:46,826 --> 00:52:51,763
Mars, then, belongs to the Martians,
even if they are microbes.
717
00:52:51,998 --> 00:52:54,558
But suppose that Mars is
in fact lifeless.
718
00:52:54,767 --> 00:52:58,328
Might we in some sense be able
to live there...
719
00:52:58,538 --> 00:53:01,769
...to somehow make Mars
habitable like the Earth...
720
00:53:01,975 --> 00:53:05,069
...to terraform another world?
721
00:53:07,580 --> 00:53:10,481
As lovely a world as Mars is...
722
00:53:10,683 --> 00:53:12,446
...it poses certain problems.
723
00:53:12,652 --> 00:53:15,177
There's too little oxygen,
no liquid water...
724
00:53:15,388 --> 00:53:17,356
...and too much ultraviolet light.
725
00:53:17,557 --> 00:53:21,891
But all that could be solved
if we could make more air.
726
00:53:22,095 --> 00:53:26,191
With higher atmospheric pressures,
liquid water would become possible.
727
00:53:26,399 --> 00:53:29,368
With more oxygen we could
breathe the atmosphere.
728
00:53:29,569 --> 00:53:32,470
And ozone could form
to shield the surface...
729
00:53:32,672 --> 00:53:35,072
...from the solar ultraviolet light.
730
00:53:35,275 --> 00:53:37,835
The evidence for liquid water
suggests...
731
00:53:38,044 --> 00:53:40,638
...that Mars once had
a denser atmosphere...
732
00:53:40,847 --> 00:53:43,077
...which can't have all
escaped to space.
733
00:53:43,283 --> 00:53:45,649
It has to be on the planet somewhere.
734
00:53:46,119 --> 00:53:48,178
In subsurface ice, surely...
735
00:53:48,388 --> 00:53:52,586
...but most accessibly
in the present polar caps.
736
00:53:54,727 --> 00:53:58,288
To vaporize the icecaps,
we must heat them...
737
00:53:58,498 --> 00:54:03,435
...preferably by covering them with
something dark to absorb more sunlight.
738
00:54:03,670 --> 00:54:07,162
That thing ought to also be cheap
and able to make copies of itself.
739
00:54:07,373 --> 00:54:12,037
Well, there are such things.
We call them plants.
740
00:54:12,812 --> 00:54:17,181
We would need to evolve by artificial
selection and genetic engineering...
741
00:54:17,383 --> 00:54:22,047
...dark plants able to survive
the severe Martian environment.
742
00:54:22,755 --> 00:54:24,586
Such plants could be seeded...
743
00:54:24,791 --> 00:54:27,817
...on the vast expanse
of the Martian polar icecaps...
744
00:54:28,127 --> 00:54:31,187
...taking root, spreading,
giving off oxygen...
745
00:54:31,397 --> 00:54:33,888
...darkening the surface,
melting the ice...
746
00:54:34,100 --> 00:54:37,433
...and releasing
the ancient Martian atmosphere...
747
00:54:37,637 --> 00:54:39,901
...from its long captivity.
748
00:54:42,342 --> 00:54:46,244
We might even imagine a kind of
Martian Johnny Appleseed...
749
00:54:46,446 --> 00:54:48,073
...robot or human...
750
00:54:48,281 --> 00:54:52,513
...roaming the frozen polar wastes
in an endeavor which benefits...
751
00:54:52,719 --> 00:54:54,812
...only the generations to come.
752
00:54:55,021 --> 00:54:58,821
It might take hundreds
or thousands of years.
753
00:55:04,163 --> 00:55:06,757
We might, then, want to carry
the liberated water...
754
00:55:06,966 --> 00:55:08,957
...from the melting polar icecaps...
755
00:55:09,168 --> 00:55:11,568
...to the warmer equatorial regions.
756
00:55:11,771 --> 00:55:13,739
And there's a way to do it:
757
00:55:13,940 --> 00:55:16,807
We would build canals.
758
00:55:17,276 --> 00:55:19,972
But that's exactly what
Percival Lowell believed...
759
00:55:20,179 --> 00:55:22,306
...was happening on Mars in his time.
760
00:55:22,515 --> 00:55:25,973
The idea of a canal network
built by Martians...
761
00:55:26,185 --> 00:55:29,586
...may turn out to be
a kind of premonition...
762
00:55:29,789 --> 00:55:32,519
...because, if the planet
ever is terraformed...
763
00:55:32,725 --> 00:55:34,693
...it will be done by human beings...
764
00:55:34,894 --> 00:55:38,591
...whose permanent residence
and planetary affiliation...
765
00:55:38,798 --> 00:55:40,095
...is Mars.
766
00:55:40,299 --> 00:55:43,598
The Martians will be us.
767
00:56:16,035 --> 00:56:20,165
Mars today is strictly relevant to
the global environment of the Earth.
768
00:56:20,373 --> 00:56:24,070
Its antiseptic surface is
a cautionary tale of what happens...
769
00:56:24,277 --> 00:56:26,108
...if you don't have an ozone layer.
770
00:56:26,312 --> 00:56:30,180
Its great dust storms and the resulting
cooling of its surface...
771
00:56:30,383 --> 00:56:32,817
...played a role in the discovery
of nuclear winter...
772
00:56:33,019 --> 00:56:37,115
...the catastrophic climate change on
Earth predicted to follow nuclear war.
773
00:56:37,323 --> 00:56:41,225
So if you didn't have an ounce
of adventuresome spirit in you...
774
00:56:41,427 --> 00:56:45,124
...it would still make sense
to support the exploration of Mars.
775
00:56:45,965 --> 00:56:48,729
In recent years, there's been...
776
00:56:48,935 --> 00:56:50,835
...a groundswell of interest...
777
00:56:51,037 --> 00:56:55,474
...in organizing the first expedition
of humans to go to the planet Mars.
778
00:56:55,675 --> 00:56:59,702
We first need more robotic missions,
including rovers...
779
00:56:59,912 --> 00:57:03,109
...balloons and return-
sample missions...
780
00:57:03,316 --> 00:57:06,217
...and more experience
in long duration space flight.
781
00:57:06,419 --> 00:57:08,284
But eventually, if all goes well...
782
00:57:08,488 --> 00:57:10,820
...the interplanetary
ship or ships...
783
00:57:11,023 --> 00:57:13,184
...would be constructed
in Earth orbit...
784
00:57:13,993 --> 00:57:16,723
...launched on the long
journey to Mars...
785
00:57:17,530 --> 00:57:20,761
...and then a landing module
would set down on the surface.
786
00:57:20,967 --> 00:57:22,366
The crew would emerge...
787
00:57:22,568 --> 00:57:26,561
...making the first human footfalls
on another planet.
788
00:57:27,874 --> 00:57:30,502
It would be very expensive,
of course...
789
00:57:30,710 --> 00:57:33,372
...although cheaper
if many nations share the cost.
790
00:57:33,579 --> 00:57:37,845
The key issue in my mind is whether
the unmet needs here on Earth...
791
00:57:38,050 --> 00:57:39,779
...should take priority.
792
00:57:40,086 --> 00:57:43,522
But that's a question even more
appropriately addressed...
793
00:57:43,723 --> 00:57:45,657
...to the military budgets...
794
00:57:45,858 --> 00:57:49,726
...now $1 trillion a year worldwide.
795
00:57:49,929 --> 00:57:51,920
You can buy a lot for that.
796
00:57:52,465 --> 00:57:56,299
Justifications for the Mars endeavor
have been offered in terms of...
797
00:57:56,502 --> 00:57:58,026
...scientific exploration...
798
00:57:58,237 --> 00:58:01,570
...developing technology,
international cooperation...
799
00:58:01,774 --> 00:58:04,242
...education, the environment.
800
00:58:04,443 --> 00:58:08,880
Some see it as the obvious response
to the future calling.
801
00:58:09,081 --> 00:58:12,414
Some even think we should go
to investigate enigmatic landforms...
802
00:58:12,618 --> 00:58:15,553
...including one that resembles
an enormous human face.
803
00:58:16,155 --> 00:58:19,283
Personally, I think this,
like hundreds of other...
804
00:58:19,492 --> 00:58:21,221
...blocky mesas there...
805
00:58:21,427 --> 00:58:23,725
...is sculpted by
the high-speed winds.
806
00:58:23,930 --> 00:58:26,763
But if we're going anyway,
there's no harm in taking a look.
807
00:58:26,966 --> 00:58:30,367
A remarkably diverse group
of American leaders...
808
00:58:30,570 --> 00:58:32,765
...has endorsed the Mars goal.
809
00:58:33,639 --> 00:58:36,608
I imagine the emissaries from Earth...
810
00:58:36,809 --> 00:58:39,107
...citizens of many nations...
811
00:58:39,312 --> 00:58:42,440
...wandering down an ancient
river valley on Mars...
812
00:58:42,648 --> 00:58:46,084
...trying to understand
how a quite Earth-like world...
813
00:58:46,285 --> 00:58:49,743
...was converted
into a permanent ice age...
814
00:58:49,956 --> 00:58:54,120
...and looking for signs of
ancient life along the river banks.
815
00:58:54,827 --> 00:58:55,816
In the long run...
816
00:58:56,028 --> 00:58:58,895
...the significance of such a mission
is nothing less...
817
00:58:59,098 --> 00:59:03,432
...than the conversion of humanity
into a multiplanet species.
69290
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