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♪
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♪
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DAVID POGUE:
What's it take to make our
modern world?
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Ah!
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(Pogue shouts)
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That's amazing!
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I'm David Pogue.
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{\an1}Join me on a high-speed chase
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{\an1}through the elements...
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and beyond.
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(explosions)
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Oh, my God!
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{\an1}As we smash our way into
the materials,
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molecules,
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and reactions...
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AMANDA CAVANAGH:It's a really cool enzyme
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{\an1}because it makes life on Earth
possible.
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POGUE:...that make the places we live,
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the bodies we live in,
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{\an1}and the stuff we can't seem
to live without.
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{\an1}The only thing between me and
certain death...
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{\an1}(explosions boom,
glass shatters)
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...is chemistry?
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{\an1}From killer snails...
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MANDEË HOLFORD:Just when you think you've heard
of everything,
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{\an1}nature will surprise you.
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POGUE:
...and exploding glass
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{\an1}to the price a pepper-eating
Pogue pays.
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{\an1}There's got to be some easier
way to learn about molecules.
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♪
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{\an1}In this hour, we'll dig into
the surprising ways
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{\an1}different elements
combine together
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and blow apart.
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{\an7}(explosion echoes)
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{\an1}Come for the chemistry,
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{\an1}but stay for the bacon
blowtorch.
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The power of bacon!
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(laughter)
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{\an1}"Beyond the Elements:
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Reactions"--
right now on "NOVA."
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♪
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♪
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DAVID POGUE:
Imagine that you're about
to take your first shot
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{\an1}in a game of pool--
the break.
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{\an1}(chalk sound on cue)
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{\an1}But when the cue ball hits
the other balls...
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(rat squeaks)
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{\an1}...they all turn into a rat.
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{\an1}Or imagine you snap a pencil
in two...
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{\an1}and it becomes a flower...
and a fork.
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{\an1}That's how weird and surprising
some chemical reactions are.
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{\an1}You can take something asdangerous as the element sodium,
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which explodes
on contact with water...
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(explosion)
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{\an1}combine it with a lethal gas,
the element chlorine,
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{\an1}and end up with something
utterly different:
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{\an7}sodium chloride--
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{\an7}table salt for your fries.
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{\an7}Transformative chemical
reactions are everywhere,
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{\an7}they're going on all the time.
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(explosion)
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{\an1}They put the bang in
explosives...
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That's a reaction!
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ANNOUNCER:
Round 2.
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POGUE:
...and the "heat" in hot
peppers.
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What am I doing?
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{\an7}Learning how to harness them
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{\an7}has given us some control over
our world
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{\an7}and maybe even helped
to make us human.
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{\an8}♪
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{\an7}And few folks know more about
chemical reactions...
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{\an7}This is not normal fire.
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POGUE:...than my old friend Theo Gray.
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(flames billowing)
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{\an1}Today, I've come to his
mad scientist lair in Illinois
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{\an1}to find out more about one of
the most powerful weapons
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{\an1}in our reaction arsenal...
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Oh ho, ho, ho!
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Fire.
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Fire is a chemical reaction,
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plain and simple.
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It happens to be the mostimportant chemical reaction
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ever, times ten--bar none.
(chuckles)
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♪
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GRAY:
When you think about the
importance of fire
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to human beingsbecoming who we are,
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it's kind of the start ofcivilization almost,
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discovering how to controlthis amazing thing-- feeds us,
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chases away the bears,it lights up the night.
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There's almost nothingyou could name
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that's more importantthan fire.
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POGUE:
So what is fire, anyway?
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{\an7}You may have learned
this in school.
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{\an8}To make fire,
a kind of combustion,
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{\an7}you need fuel plus heat
plus oxygen.
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{\an7}That formula is simple...
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{\an7}but what's happening isn't.
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{\an1}And what's actually happening
here is kind of subtle.
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{\an1}The wood itselfisn't really burning.
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{\an1}You see the flames?
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{\an5}Yeah...Most of the reactionis happening
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{\an5}up in the airabove the wood
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because it needs
to mix with air.
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{\an1}Like, there's no air
in the wood.
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{\an1}And what's happeningis the heat of the flames here
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{\an1}are breaking down
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{\an1}and evaporating compoundsin the wood,
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{\an1}bringing them up into the air.
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{\an8}POGUE:
Those gases from the wood
are complex molecules
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{\an7}made mostly of hydrogen,
carbon, and oxygen.
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{\an7}When the rising gases enter
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{\an7}the high temperature
area of the flames,
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{\an8}they're joined
by oxygen from the air
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{\an7}in a swirling cauldron
of complicated reactions.
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{\an7}The gases break down,
and their atoms rearrange.
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{\an7}If the gases burn completely,
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{\an7}they'll form water
and carbon dioxide.
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{\an8}More often,
incomplete burning produces
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{\an7}a variety of other molecules.
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{\an7}Importantly for us, thereactions also release energy--
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{\an7}the light you see
and the heat you feel.
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{\an7}And that, at its heart, is whathappens in chemical reactions--
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the breaking
and making of bonds
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{\an1}and the shuffling around
of atoms.
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{\an1}You take two different things,
you smash them together,
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{\an1}they rearrange themselves,
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{\an1}and then you get...
something else comes out.
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{\an1}And one of the big-time players
in the game...
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♪
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...is oxygen.
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You ready?
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POGUE:
With enough heat it reacts
with just about anything,
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{\an1}as Theo soon shows me
in his barn.
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{\an1}(thermic lance igniting)
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{\an1}This powerful cutting tool
is called a thermic lance.
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{\an1}It uses pressurized oxygen
fed through a metal rod.
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{\an1}This one's made of iron.
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{\an1}We don't normally think of iron
as something that can burn,
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{\an1}but when lit in the flow
of oxygen,
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{\an8}it does,
generating so much heat...
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{\an3}Wow!
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{\an1}...that you can cut through
a brick or concrete.
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{\an1}Demolition crews use large
thermic lances
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{\an1}to slice up all sorts of big,
unwieldy things--
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{\an1}from bridges to ships
to machinery.
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{\an1}But does the rod that burns in
the stream of oxygen
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{\an1}need to be metal?
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{\an1}I shudder to ask...
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{\an1}why you've gotplates of bacon here.
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{\an1}Well, because bacon is thefunniest thing
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{\an1}that you can form into a tubeand shoot oxygen through.
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(laughing)
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Unfortunately actualAmerican-style bacon
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doesn't hold togetherwell enough.
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{\an1}We need the engineering grade.
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{\an1}This is Italian prosciutto.
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POGUE:
Theo has already baked
some tubes of prosciutto.
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{\an1}The next step is to wrap them
in yet another piece
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{\an1}to create one large hollow tube,
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{\an1}which he hooks up to his oxygen
tank.
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Okay, so now, what can we dowith this?
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The same thing you do with anysort of thermic lance.
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You cut something with it.
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Uh, we're goingto cut steel...
(laughs)
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because, why not?
No!
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{\an1}You're going to cut steel
with bacon?
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{\an1}THEO GRAY:Yes, a steel baking pan.
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{\an5}Wow.You just haveto get it hot enough.
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♪
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The power of bacon!
(laughs)
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That's amazing!
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Yeah, I mean that's, that'sa good amount of cutting there.
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{\an1}I've heard of steel-cut oatmeal
for breakfast, but...
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{\an1}Bacon-cut steel?
(laughs)
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♪
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POGUE:
Gaining control over fire
has had an immeasurable impact
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{\an1}on human civilization.
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{\an1}In fact, the most popular
construction material
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{\an1}in the world has its roots
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{\an1}in one of the oldest pyro
technologies:
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00:08:08,533 --> 00:08:12,433
{\an1}roasting a certain kind of rock.
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{\an1}We know it as concrete.
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♪
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Modern concrete
is a mixture of aggregate--
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{\an1}materials like sand, gravel,
and crushed stone--
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with a binder--
these days, most often cement.
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And that's key.
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{\an1}Because people are always
confusing concrete...
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and cement.
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{\an1}Cement is the glue,
concrete is the end product.
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{\an1}Cement sidewalks?
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{\an1}No, that's concrete!
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Cement trucks?
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{\an1}Uh-uh, they carry concrete!
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But cement is
the key ingredient.
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{\an1}And that's why I head to the
LafargeHolcim Cement Plant,
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{\an1}the largest in the U.S., located
outside St. Louis, Missouri.
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We shoot rock every day.
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00:09:06,433 --> 00:09:08,600
POGUE:
My day with plant manager
John Goetz
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00:09:08,633 --> 00:09:11,666
{\an1}begins with a bang.
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{\an1}VOICE OVER RADIO:
Fire in the hole!
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Is it safe
to go down there?
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00:09:16,366 --> 00:09:18,733
JOHN GOETZ (chuckling):Not quite.
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{\an1}(explosions echo)
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{\an1}How's that for you?
(laughing)
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That's a reaction.That's awesome, huh?
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00:09:36,400 --> 00:09:38,266
Do it again!
(laughs)
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Now that, my friends,is a lot of limestone.
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GOETZ:
That's a lot of rock.
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POGUE:
Before long, this will be
holding together
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America's buildingsand sidewalks and...
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00:09:48,333 --> 00:09:49,533
That's right,
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00:09:49,566 --> 00:09:51,666
we're going to turn this
limestone into cement.
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POGUE:
But what exactly is limestone?
215
00:09:57,333 --> 00:10:01,333
It's mostly calcium carbonate--
a compound that,
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00:10:01,366 --> 00:10:05,100
{\an7}as its name says,
has two parts.
217
00:10:05,133 --> 00:10:09,100
{\an7}There's a calcium atom that has
given up two of its electrons,
218
00:10:09,133 --> 00:10:12,933
{\an7}making it a positively charged
ion.
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00:10:12,966 --> 00:10:17,066
{\an7}The other part is carbonate,
made up of three oxygen atoms
220
00:10:17,100 --> 00:10:20,733
{\an7}that are sharing electrons
with a carbon atom.
221
00:10:20,766 --> 00:10:25,366
{\an7}Sharing electrons is called
covalent bonding.
222
00:10:25,400 --> 00:10:28,233
{\an7}The two electrons from the
calcium have joined the party,
223
00:10:28,266 --> 00:10:32,200
{\an7}making the carbonate
a negative ion.
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{\an7}The positive calcium ion and thenegative carbonate ion attract,
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{\an7}forming-- surprise--
an ionic bond.
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00:10:43,900 --> 00:10:45,233
From the quarry,
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00:10:45,266 --> 00:10:47,666
{\an1}the limestone rock gets
gradually crushed down,
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00:10:47,700 --> 00:10:50,533
{\an1}along with some clay
and other ingredients,
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00:10:50,566 --> 00:10:52,733
{\an1}into a fine powder called
230
00:10:52,766 --> 00:10:54,466
"raw meal,"
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00:10:54,500 --> 00:10:57,000
in preparation
to enter the centerpiece
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{\an1}of this whole operation:
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00:10:58,966 --> 00:11:03,700
a rotary kiln,
about 22 feet in diameter
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00:11:03,733 --> 00:11:06,633
{\an1}and about 100 yards long.
235
00:11:06,666 --> 00:11:10,100
♪
236
00:11:10,133 --> 00:11:12,000
GOETZ:
It's a big kiln,
largest in the world.
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00:11:12,033 --> 00:11:13,733
Kiln, as in, like,an oven?
Kiln.
238
00:11:13,766 --> 00:11:16,000
{\an7}Correct, gas temperatures
inside the kiln
239
00:11:16,033 --> 00:11:18,566
{\an7}right here is about 2,000
degrees Fahrenheit.
240
00:11:20,100 --> 00:11:21,866
{\an8}POGUE:Just before it enters the kiln,
241
00:11:21,900 --> 00:11:24,533
{\an8}the powdery raw meal is dropped
down
242
00:11:24,566 --> 00:11:27,766
{\an1}through the kiln's hot exhaust
gases.
243
00:11:27,800 --> 00:11:29,533
{\an8}By the time
it reaches the bottom
244
00:11:29,566 --> 00:11:31,133
{\an7}and the entrance to the kiln,
245
00:11:31,166 --> 00:11:34,333
{\an7}the heat has transformed
the calcium carbonate
246
00:11:34,366 --> 00:11:39,733
{\an7}from the limestone into carbon
dioxide gas and calcium oxide,
247
00:11:39,766 --> 00:11:43,533
{\an7}also known as quicklime.
248
00:11:43,566 --> 00:11:48,433
{\an7}Normally the kiln rotates at aspeed of about 4 times a minute.
249
00:11:48,466 --> 00:11:50,400
{\an1}And ordinarily this whole
thing would be turning...
250
00:11:50,433 --> 00:11:52,500
{\an1}But it was shut down for
maintenance.
251
00:11:53,966 --> 00:11:57,100
{\an1}Oh man...the mouth of the dragon!
252
00:11:57,133 --> 00:12:00,166
{\an1}Giving us a chance to see it
from the inside.
253
00:12:00,200 --> 00:12:01,766
{\an1}So the whole thingis turning.
254
00:12:01,800 --> 00:12:04,000
{\an1}The whole thing is turning over
four revolutions a minute.
255
00:12:04,033 --> 00:12:05,966
{\an1}As the material comesdown the kiln,
256
00:12:06,000 --> 00:12:07,633
{\an1}there's a burner pipewith a flame
257
00:12:07,666 --> 00:12:09,466
{\an1}right here,inside the kiln.
258
00:12:09,500 --> 00:12:12,333
GOETZ:
And heating the material
to 2,600 degrees,
259
00:12:12,366 --> 00:12:15,433
{\an1}the flame temperature is about
3,000 degrees Fahrenheit.
260
00:12:15,466 --> 00:12:18,200
{\an1}At this point it looks like
dark baby powder?
261
00:12:18,233 --> 00:12:20,200
{\an1}At this pointit looks like lava.
262
00:12:20,233 --> 00:12:22,533
Oh, it does?Yes, it's red hot lava.
263
00:12:22,566 --> 00:12:24,400
♪
264
00:12:24,433 --> 00:12:27,400
{\an8}POGUE:
As the main ingredient,
calcium oxide,
265
00:12:27,433 --> 00:12:30,800
{\an7}journeys down the kiln
getting hotter and hotter,
266
00:12:30,833 --> 00:12:34,000
{\an7}it reacts with the other
ingredients in the raw meal,
267
00:12:34,033 --> 00:12:37,966
{\an7}creating complex synthetic
compounds.
268
00:12:38,000 --> 00:12:40,533
{\an7}By the time the whole mix
reaches the end,
269
00:12:40,566 --> 00:12:42,700
{\an7}it has a new name...
270
00:12:43,966 --> 00:12:45,200
GOETZ:
Clinker.
271
00:12:45,233 --> 00:12:46,200
POGUE:
This stuff is called clinker?
272
00:12:46,233 --> 00:12:47,433
JOHN GOETZ:
It's clinker.
273
00:12:47,466 --> 00:12:48,900
You couldn't call it
something dignified--
274
00:12:48,933 --> 00:12:50,666
Oh, I didn't name it.
Like calcium carbonate
275
00:12:50,700 --> 00:12:52,500
or sulfur trioxide--
clinker?
276
00:12:52,533 --> 00:12:53,766
Clinker.
(laughs)
277
00:12:53,800 --> 00:12:55,366
Coming out ofthe kiln process,
278
00:12:55,400 --> 00:12:56,700
before it goesinto the cooler.
279
00:12:56,733 --> 00:12:59,933
{\an8}And clinker just refers
to that limestone brew
280
00:12:59,966 --> 00:13:01,866
{\an8}that's been cooked.Correct.
281
00:13:03,200 --> 00:13:05,366
POGUE:
But it still isn't cement!
282
00:13:05,400 --> 00:13:07,366
♪
283
00:13:07,400 --> 00:13:10,733
{\an1}In the final stage,they add a little more limestone
284
00:13:10,766 --> 00:13:13,866
{\an1}and hydrated calcium sulfate--
285
00:13:13,900 --> 00:13:17,233
{\an1}a common mineral known
as gypsum.
286
00:13:17,266 --> 00:13:20,000
{\an1}Conveyer belts seem to reallybe a thing around here.
287
00:13:20,033 --> 00:13:25,433
{\an1}And the whole thing gets ground
back down to a fine powder.
288
00:13:25,466 --> 00:13:26,933
{\an1}And here it is, at last,
289
00:13:26,966 --> 00:13:29,166
{\an1}no more grinding,no more ingredients,
290
00:13:29,200 --> 00:13:30,300
{\an1}this is thefinished product.
291
00:13:30,333 --> 00:13:32,266
{\an8}This is cement.This is cement.
292
00:13:32,300 --> 00:13:35,066
{\an8}From the virgin limestonebluffs of Missouri.
293
00:13:35,100 --> 00:13:37,033
There it is.
294
00:13:37,066 --> 00:13:39,166
(explosion)
295
00:13:39,200 --> 00:13:41,033
POGUE:
This LafargeHolcim plant
296
00:13:41,066 --> 00:13:45,533
produces up to about 4.4 million
tons of cement a year.
297
00:13:45,566 --> 00:13:48,200
{\an1}But that's just a small
percentage
298
00:13:48,233 --> 00:13:51,733
{\an1}of the 97 million tons produced
in the U.S.,
299
00:13:51,766 --> 00:13:55,966
{\an1}and the 4.5 billion tons
300
00:13:56,000 --> 00:13:57,666
{\an1}produced internationally.
301
00:13:57,700 --> 00:14:01,500
{\an1}Virtually all of it
ends up in concrete
302
00:14:01,533 --> 00:14:04,600
{\an1}that mixture of cement,
water, and rock
303
00:14:04,633 --> 00:14:07,066
{\an1}that is second only to water
304
00:14:07,100 --> 00:14:10,766
{\an1}as the most-consumed resource
on the planet.
305
00:14:10,800 --> 00:14:13,400
♪
306
00:14:13,433 --> 00:14:15,300
{\an1}That comes at a price though--
307
00:14:15,333 --> 00:14:19,266
{\an1}a massive carbon footprint.
308
00:14:19,300 --> 00:14:24,433
{\an1}In 2016, cement production
emitted about 8%
309
00:14:24,466 --> 00:14:28,366
{\an1}of the global total
of greenhouse gases,
310
00:14:28,400 --> 00:14:32,700
{\an1}over half of that from
the production of clinker.
311
00:14:32,733 --> 00:14:34,866
{\an1}Proposed solutions
to this problem
312
00:14:34,900 --> 00:14:37,800
{\an1}range from using wood to build
high-rises,
313
00:14:37,833 --> 00:14:41,366
{\an1}like this 18-story one
in Norway,
314
00:14:41,400 --> 00:14:46,466
{\an1}to injecting CO2 back
into concrete as it cures,
315
00:14:46,500 --> 00:14:50,866
{\an1}like this company in New Jersey
making pavers.
316
00:14:50,900 --> 00:14:55,733
{\an1}And even growing cement using
bacteria,
317
00:14:55,766 --> 00:15:00,300
{\an1}though scaling up those ideas
remains a challenge.
318
00:15:00,333 --> 00:15:02,700
{\an7}Maybe the solution,
or part of the solution,
319
00:15:02,733 --> 00:15:05,633
{\an7}to greenhouse gas emissions
and global warming will come
320
00:15:05,666 --> 00:15:08,333
{\an7}from a breakthrough
in chemistry.
321
00:15:08,366 --> 00:15:10,666
{\an1}That may sound foolishly
optimistic,
322
00:15:10,700 --> 00:15:13,233
{\an1}but the discovery of a chemical
reaction
323
00:15:13,266 --> 00:15:14,966
{\an1}over a hundred years ago
324
00:15:15,000 --> 00:15:17,300
{\an1}changed the trajectory
of humanity,
325
00:15:17,333 --> 00:15:19,866
{\an1}though few know the story.
326
00:15:19,900 --> 00:15:23,133
♪
327
00:15:23,166 --> 00:15:24,733
At the start
of the 20th century,
328
00:15:24,766 --> 00:15:28,333
{\an1}farmlands like these didn't
look so verdant.
329
00:15:28,366 --> 00:15:30,233
{\an1}And with populations rising,
330
00:15:30,266 --> 00:15:33,433
{\an1}scientists wondered whether,
in the near future,
331
00:15:33,466 --> 00:15:35,433
{\an1}there would be enough food.
332
00:15:38,066 --> 00:15:40,566
{\an7}The problem was nitrogen.
333
00:15:40,600 --> 00:15:43,833
{\an1}Animals need nitrogen to grow.
334
00:15:43,866 --> 00:15:46,333
So do plants.
335
00:15:46,366 --> 00:15:49,733
{\an1}But before the 20th century,
farmers mainly depended
336
00:15:49,766 --> 00:15:54,300
{\an1}on compost and manure to supply
it to their crops,
337
00:15:54,333 --> 00:15:58,000
{\an1}essentially recycling nitrogen
from dead plants and animals.
338
00:15:58,033 --> 00:16:02,433
{\an1}But there was only so much
nitrogen in that cycle.
339
00:16:02,466 --> 00:16:05,000
Eventually,
the growing population
340
00:16:05,033 --> 00:16:08,100
{\an1}would exceed the farmlands'
capacity to grow food,
341
00:16:08,133 --> 00:16:10,633
{\an1}leading to mass starvation.
342
00:16:12,633 --> 00:16:17,066
{\an1}But there was a solution in the
air... literally.
343
00:16:17,100 --> 00:16:20,833
{\an1}Our atmosphere is almost
80% nitrogen
344
00:16:20,866 --> 00:16:24,033
{\an1}but that doesn't do plants
any direct good.
345
00:16:24,066 --> 00:16:27,900
{\an1}That's because it's in the form
of N2,
346
00:16:27,933 --> 00:16:31,766
{\an7}two nitrogen atoms sharing
in a triple bond.
347
00:16:31,800 --> 00:16:37,033
{\an7}Three electrons from each atom
are fully shared between them,
348
00:16:37,066 --> 00:16:41,000
{\an7}which as Ed Cussler, a chemicalengineer and professor emeritus
349
00:16:41,033 --> 00:16:43,366
{\an1}at the University of Minnesota
explains,
350
00:16:43,400 --> 00:16:47,666
{\an1}makes the nitrogen molecule
one tough cookie.
351
00:16:47,700 --> 00:16:50,333
{\an8}So the atmosphere
is 78% nitrogen.
352
00:16:50,366 --> 00:16:53,900
{\an7}Why can't the plants just take
the nitrogen out of the air?
353
00:16:53,933 --> 00:16:56,166
{\an7}Because you can't breakthis little bastard in half.
354
00:16:56,200 --> 00:16:58,700
(laughs)You take the nitrogen,
355
00:16:58,733 --> 00:16:59,966
you have to break
this triple bond,
356
00:17:00,000 --> 00:17:01,433
between the two nitrogen atoms.
357
00:17:01,466 --> 00:17:03,866
It's almostthe hardest bond,
358
00:17:03,900 --> 00:17:06,433
{\an1}the most difficult bond
that we know.
359
00:17:06,466 --> 00:17:08,900
{\an1}Basically it's almost inert.
360
00:17:08,933 --> 00:17:10,833
♪
361
00:17:10,866 --> 00:17:13,600
POGUE:So the scientific challenge was
for someone to find a way
362
00:17:13,633 --> 00:17:16,933
{\an1}to take that stubborn nitrogen
molecule from the air,
363
00:17:16,966 --> 00:17:21,400
{\an1}and bust it apart to create
something plants could use--
364
00:17:21,433 --> 00:17:24,366
{\an8}to invent
a synthetic fertilizer.
365
00:17:24,400 --> 00:17:26,000
♪
366
00:17:26,033 --> 00:17:27,666
Around 1910,
367
00:17:27,700 --> 00:17:31,300
{\an1}German Chemist Fritz Haber
and his team found the answer,
368
00:17:31,333 --> 00:17:35,633
{\an1}which they demonstrated using
this table-top machine.
369
00:17:35,666 --> 00:17:38,500
{\an1}From nitrogen gas
and hydrogen gas,
370
00:17:38,533 --> 00:17:42,533
{\an1}he could produce NH3...
ammonia.
371
00:17:42,566 --> 00:17:44,366
{\an1}A fertilizer itself,
372
00:17:44,400 --> 00:17:48,300
{\an7}and a starting point
to produce others.
373
00:17:48,333 --> 00:17:52,100
{\an1}German chemist Carl Bosch
brought Haber's work
374
00:17:52,133 --> 00:17:54,866
{\an1}to an industrial scale.
375
00:17:54,900 --> 00:17:58,733
{\an1}Which is why it is known as the
Haber-Bosch process.
376
00:17:58,766 --> 00:18:00,266
{\an1}Ed and his colleague,
377
00:18:00,300 --> 00:18:03,166
{\an1}Joe Franek, show me
their table-top version.
378
00:18:03,200 --> 00:18:05,500
POGUE:
Joe, maybe you can show us
379
00:18:05,533 --> 00:18:06,733
a little more hands-on
380
00:18:06,766 --> 00:18:09,033
how the Haber-Bosch
process works?
381
00:18:09,066 --> 00:18:12,933
All right, we're going to puta quantity of nitrogen
382
00:18:12,966 --> 00:18:15,366
in this syringe, then we'regoing to put three times
383
00:18:15,400 --> 00:18:18,433
that amount of hydrogenin this syringe,
384
00:18:18,466 --> 00:18:20,533
we're going to lightour Bunsen burner
385
00:18:20,566 --> 00:18:22,266
and we're going to passthat mixture of gasses
386
00:18:22,300 --> 00:18:24,366
over what willbe our hot catalyst,
387
00:18:24,400 --> 00:18:27,966
which is iron in this case,and that will facilitate
388
00:18:28,000 --> 00:18:33,200
the conversion of the nitrogenand hydrogen into ammonia.
389
00:18:33,233 --> 00:18:36,233
{\an1}Okay, so one syringe full
of nitrogen
390
00:18:36,266 --> 00:18:38,666
and three times
as much hydrogen
391
00:18:38,700 --> 00:18:41,366
because the formula
for ammonia is NH3?
392
00:18:41,400 --> 00:18:43,500
There you go.
It all makes sense.
393
00:18:43,533 --> 00:18:44,866
♪
394
00:18:44,900 --> 00:18:47,766
{\an8}POGUE:
Joe passes the mixture
over some steel wool
395
00:18:47,800 --> 00:18:50,033
{\an7}heated by a Bunsen burner.
396
00:18:50,066 --> 00:18:52,233
{\an7}The steel wool acts
as a catalyst,
397
00:18:52,266 --> 00:18:54,866
{\an7}a material that helps
a reaction along
398
00:18:54,900 --> 00:18:58,166
{\an1}while not getting consumed
by it.
399
00:18:58,200 --> 00:19:00,333
{\an1}After six minutes,
400
00:19:00,366 --> 00:19:02,733
{\an1}it's time to see if it worked.
401
00:19:02,766 --> 00:19:04,400
{\an1}FRANEK:So we now have
402
00:19:04,433 --> 00:19:08,166
{\an1}all of our gases, our unreactednitrogen and hydrogen
403
00:19:08,200 --> 00:19:10,900
{\an1}and the ammonia we producedin this one syringe,
404
00:19:10,933 --> 00:19:14,066
{\an1}and what I'm going to do
is flush all of these gases
405
00:19:14,100 --> 00:19:17,000
{\an1}through our indicator tube.
406
00:19:17,033 --> 00:19:19,366
{\an1}If we flush some ammonia through
these yellow beads,
407
00:19:19,400 --> 00:19:21,933
{\an1}they'll turn blue--
yeah, bravo.
408
00:19:21,966 --> 00:19:23,900
POGUE:
I see blue!
409
00:19:26,566 --> 00:19:28,833
So how much ammonia
do you think we got?
410
00:19:28,866 --> 00:19:31,133
Well, our indicator on the tube
411
00:19:31,166 --> 00:19:34,266
{\an1}says that we have just
slightly less than
412
00:19:34,300 --> 00:19:36,366
{\an1}two parts per million
of ammonia.
413
00:19:36,400 --> 00:19:38,000
Two parts per million?
414
00:19:38,033 --> 00:19:39,633
{\an1}So out of every million
molecules,
415
00:19:39,666 --> 00:19:42,466
{\an1}we got two of ammonia?
416
00:19:42,500 --> 00:19:44,700
(gas hissing)
At room temperature,
417
00:19:44,733 --> 00:19:47,233
{\an1}this process barely works,
418
00:19:47,266 --> 00:19:50,500
{\an1}and even with our burner heating
things up a bit,
419
00:19:50,533 --> 00:19:52,800
{\an1}nitrogen gas is so inert,
420
00:19:52,833 --> 00:19:55,133
{\an1}the reaction isn't much better.
421
00:19:55,166 --> 00:19:56,900
{\an8}♪
422
00:19:56,933 --> 00:20:01,466
{\an8}Part of the problem is that this
equation is a two-way street.
423
00:20:01,500 --> 00:20:05,166
{\an1}Some reactions are one way--
irreversible.
424
00:20:05,200 --> 00:20:08,733
{\an1}When you bake a cake,
you can't unbake it.
425
00:20:08,766 --> 00:20:12,766
{\an7}But the Haber-Bosch process,
like many reactions,
426
00:20:12,800 --> 00:20:16,766
{\an7}goes both ways at the same time.
427
00:20:16,800 --> 00:20:18,000
{\an1}So while some of the nitrogen
428
00:20:18,033 --> 00:20:20,166
and hydrogen
are forming ammonia,
429
00:20:20,200 --> 00:20:22,666
{\an1}some of the ammonia
is breaking down,
430
00:20:22,700 --> 00:20:25,966
{\an1}into nitrogen and hydrogen.
431
00:20:26,000 --> 00:20:28,900
{\an1}The trick is to find the optimal
conditions
432
00:20:28,933 --> 00:20:31,700
{\an1}where that balance heads
in the direction you want.
433
00:20:31,733 --> 00:20:34,200
♪
434
00:20:34,233 --> 00:20:36,533
{\an7}One tool is pressure.
435
00:20:36,566 --> 00:20:39,933
{\an7}Bosch's industrialized version
compressed the gases
436
00:20:39,966 --> 00:20:44,200
{\an7}to around 175 times normal
atmospheric pressure.
437
00:20:44,233 --> 00:20:47,733
{\an7}And that huge pressure cooker
ran very hot--
438
00:20:47,766 --> 00:20:53,500
{\an7}550 degrees Celsius, around
1,000 degrees Fahrenheit.
439
00:20:53,533 --> 00:20:55,266
{\an7}Enough to make the hydrogen
and nitrogen
440
00:20:55,300 --> 00:20:57,066
{\an7}react with the catalyst,
441
00:20:57,100 --> 00:21:01,766
{\an7}but not so hot as to break up
a lot of ammonia.
442
00:21:01,800 --> 00:21:05,533
{\an1}Though the process requires
extreme conditions,
443
00:21:05,566 --> 00:21:08,133
{\an1}the discovery of a way
to split apart
444
00:21:08,166 --> 00:21:11,700
{\an1}that stubborn nitrogen molecule
changed the world.
445
00:21:11,733 --> 00:21:14,700
{\an1}It opened the door
to the creation
446
00:21:14,733 --> 00:21:17,466
{\an1}of artificial fertilizers.
447
00:21:17,500 --> 00:21:20,200
{\an1}And it's hard to overstate
the impact
448
00:21:20,233 --> 00:21:26,366
{\an1}of the Haber-Bosch process on
our ability to feed humanity.
449
00:21:26,400 --> 00:21:29,533
{\an1}What were the lasting effects
of this introduction?
450
00:21:29,566 --> 00:21:31,900
{\an1}Two billion more people.
451
00:21:31,933 --> 00:21:34,533
If you lose
this chemical fertilizer,
452
00:21:34,566 --> 00:21:37,800
{\an1}you lose two billion people--
they starve.
453
00:21:37,833 --> 00:21:41,366
{\an1}This is nota hypothetical issue.
454
00:21:41,400 --> 00:21:43,766
{\an1}Haber-Bosch is the chemistry
that you wish for.
455
00:21:43,800 --> 00:21:45,000
{\an1}Because it's the chemistry
456
00:21:45,033 --> 00:21:48,600
{\an1}that improves the amount of food
that you can grow
457
00:21:48,633 --> 00:21:50,966
on our planet.
458
00:21:51,000 --> 00:21:53,200
{\an1}And that makes an enormous
difference
459
00:21:53,233 --> 00:21:56,000
{\an1}to the stability,
the health, the wellbeing
460
00:21:56,033 --> 00:21:57,800
{\an1}of the people on the planet.
461
00:21:57,833 --> 00:22:01,066
{\an1}So one chemical reaction
462
00:22:01,100 --> 00:22:05,700
wound up radically
changing humanity....
463
00:22:05,733 --> 00:22:07,333
Yeah, some people argueit's the most,
464
00:22:07,366 --> 00:22:10,566
it's the most importantsingle chemical reaction.
465
00:22:10,600 --> 00:22:11,833
{\an3}Wow.
466
00:22:13,066 --> 00:22:16,533
{\an1}But before you go out
and hug your nearest
467
00:22:16,566 --> 00:22:18,900
{\an1}ammonia-producing
chemical plant,
468
00:22:18,933 --> 00:22:21,700
{\an1}you may want to consider
the downsides.
469
00:22:21,733 --> 00:22:26,966
{\an1}Now that fertilizer is abundant,
growers often apply too much.
470
00:22:27,000 --> 00:22:31,766
{\an1}Runoff fertilizer has led
to giant algae blooms
471
00:22:31,800 --> 00:22:34,800
{\an1}and dead zones in oceans.
472
00:22:34,833 --> 00:22:39,533
{\an1}Also, making ammonia uses a lot
of fossil fuel.
473
00:22:39,566 --> 00:22:44,200
{\an1}Annually, the industry as a
whole accounts for one percent
474
00:22:44,233 --> 00:22:48,066
{\an1}of global CO2 emissions.
475
00:22:48,100 --> 00:22:51,066
♪
476
00:22:51,100 --> 00:22:53,633
{\an1}Ed Cussler is part of
a team of scientists
477
00:22:53,666 --> 00:22:55,433
{\an1}at the University of Minnesota
478
00:22:55,466 --> 00:22:58,566
{\an1}working on a greener approach
to producing ammonia.
479
00:23:01,700 --> 00:23:04,333
{\an1}This is the industrial
Haber-Bosch process
480
00:23:04,366 --> 00:23:05,900
{\an1}in a smaller package.
481
00:23:05,933 --> 00:23:07,866
ERIC BUCHANAN:
This ammonia reactor here is
making about
482
00:23:07,900 --> 00:23:09,833
{\an1}25 tons of ammonia a year.
483
00:23:09,866 --> 00:23:11,300
{\an8}A standard commercial
ammonia plant
484
00:23:11,333 --> 00:23:13,133
{\an8}is making thousands
of tons a day.
485
00:23:13,166 --> 00:23:15,133
{\an8}Oh.
So this is
a much smaller scale.
486
00:23:15,166 --> 00:23:18,666
POGUE:
It still depends on high
temperature and pressure
487
00:23:18,700 --> 00:23:22,966
but it's powered
by nearby wind turbines.
488
00:23:23,000 --> 00:23:26,266
You're taking nitrogenout of the air.
489
00:23:26,300 --> 00:23:28,300
You're making hydrogenout of the water.
490
00:23:28,333 --> 00:23:29,666
You're making itout of nature.
491
00:23:29,700 --> 00:23:31,333
{\an7}Yup, right here in this room.
492
00:23:31,366 --> 00:23:33,100
POGUE:
The long-term vision
493
00:23:33,133 --> 00:23:35,866
{\an1}is that small facilities
like this pilot plant
494
00:23:35,900 --> 00:23:38,733
{\an1}could make enough
"green" ammonia
495
00:23:38,766 --> 00:23:41,700
{\an1}for a county's worth of farms--
in this area,
496
00:23:41,733 --> 00:23:45,333
{\an1}about 130,000 acres.
497
00:23:45,366 --> 00:23:49,166
CUSSLER:
We are making fertilizer
from air and water.
498
00:23:49,200 --> 00:23:50,766
{\an1}It's just straight alchemy.
499
00:23:50,800 --> 00:23:53,733
{\an1}You're not going to get rich
doing it in the new green way,
500
00:23:53,766 --> 00:23:55,366
{\an1}but you can sure make a
difference
501
00:23:55,400 --> 00:23:57,400
{\an1}in the way the planet is.
502
00:23:57,433 --> 00:24:00,266
♪
503
00:24:00,300 --> 00:24:03,600
POGUE:
Scientists estimate that50 percent of the nitrogen atoms
504
00:24:03,633 --> 00:24:07,833
{\an1}in any person alive today
at one point
505
00:24:07,866 --> 00:24:10,433
passed through
the Haber-Bosch process.
506
00:24:10,466 --> 00:24:14,466
{\an1}Yet Fritz Haber's legacy
is mixed.
507
00:24:14,500 --> 00:24:18,033
{\an1}He won the Nobel Prize in
chemistry for his discovery
508
00:24:18,066 --> 00:24:22,600
{\an1}but is also considered the
"Father of Chemical Warfare,"
509
00:24:22,633 --> 00:24:26,800
{\an1}having proposed and supervised
its use in World War I
510
00:24:26,833 --> 00:24:29,133
{\an1}by the German army.
511
00:24:29,166 --> 00:24:31,366
{\an1}Some historians believe that
512
00:24:31,400 --> 00:24:34,433
{\an1}the Haber-Bosch process itself
513
00:24:34,466 --> 00:24:36,766
{\an1}may have extended that war
by years,
514
00:24:36,800 --> 00:24:41,866
{\an1}because it gave Germany a newsource of nitrogen compounds...
515
00:24:41,900 --> 00:24:44,466
{\an8}(explosion)
516
00:24:44,500 --> 00:24:48,633
{\an7}key ingredients in explosives.
517
00:24:48,666 --> 00:24:50,466
{\an7}What makes them "key"?
518
00:24:50,500 --> 00:24:54,500
{\an7}It all goes back to that
stubborn nitrogen molecule.
519
00:24:54,533 --> 00:24:57,266
{\an7}Think of it like a spring.
520
00:24:57,300 --> 00:25:01,300
{\an7}Pulling the atoms apart
takes a lot of energy.
521
00:25:01,333 --> 00:25:05,233
{\an7}And sticking them into nitrogencompounds keeps them separated.
522
00:25:05,266 --> 00:25:07,066
{\an7}But in explosives,
523
00:25:07,100 --> 00:25:10,366
{\an7}those compounds are designed
to fall apart quickly,
524
00:25:10,400 --> 00:25:13,800
{\an7}freeing the nitrogen atoms to
spring back together...
525
00:25:13,833 --> 00:25:15,200
{\an8}(explosion)
526
00:25:15,233 --> 00:25:19,800
{\an7}...and releasing the storedenergy from pulling them apart.
527
00:25:19,833 --> 00:25:22,566
♪
528
00:25:22,600 --> 00:25:24,866
{\an1}Seems like a good place
to blow stuff up
529
00:25:24,900 --> 00:25:26,766
{\an1}without risking hitting
anything.
530
00:25:26,800 --> 00:25:28,300
{\an1}Yeah,that's why we like
531
00:25:28,333 --> 00:25:29,766
{\an1}having our surroundingmountains.
532
00:25:29,800 --> 00:25:31,800
POGUE:
To better understand the role
533
00:25:31,833 --> 00:25:34,366
{\an1}of nitrogen compounds in
explosives,
534
00:25:34,400 --> 00:25:37,466
{\an1}I've decided to return to see
some old friends,
535
00:25:37,500 --> 00:25:39,900
{\an1}the engineers and scientists
536
00:25:39,933 --> 00:25:43,033
{\an1}at the Energetic Materials
Research and Testing Center
537
00:25:43,066 --> 00:25:45,700
{\an1}at New Mexico Tech.
538
00:25:45,733 --> 00:25:48,500
{\an1}We've had some fun in the
past...
539
00:25:48,533 --> 00:25:53,933
{\an8}(explosions)
540
00:25:55,233 --> 00:25:57,933
{\an8}Well this is the most funtailgate you'll ever come to.
541
00:25:57,966 --> 00:25:59,066
(Pogue laughs)
542
00:25:59,100 --> 00:26:00,266
POGUE:
So let's see
543
00:26:00,300 --> 00:26:01,900
{\an1}what ordinance tech
Jonathan Myrkle
544
00:26:01,933 --> 00:26:03,866
{\an1}and chemist Tom Pleva
545
00:26:03,900 --> 00:26:07,266
{\an1}have in store for me today.
546
00:26:07,300 --> 00:26:09,500
It's... cotton?
547
00:26:09,533 --> 00:26:10,600
Cotton balls?
548
00:26:10,633 --> 00:26:12,266
That's correct.
Like, cotton balls?
549
00:26:12,300 --> 00:26:13,733
{\an3}Yep.
550
00:26:13,766 --> 00:26:17,400
POGUE:
Now you might think that
cotton balls don't explode...
551
00:26:18,333 --> 00:26:20,766
{\an1}And you'd be right.
552
00:26:20,800 --> 00:26:22,066
{\an1}MYRKLE:That was underwhelming.
553
00:26:22,100 --> 00:26:23,866
(laughter)
554
00:26:23,900 --> 00:26:27,900
{\an1}Cotton fiber is about
90 percent cellulose,
555
00:26:27,933 --> 00:26:30,800
{\an1}a key structural component
in green plants
556
00:26:30,833 --> 00:26:36,766
{\an1}composed of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen, but no nitrogen.
557
00:26:36,800 --> 00:26:40,133
{\an1}So our cotton balls will burn--
558
00:26:40,166 --> 00:26:44,033
eventually--
though not explode.
559
00:26:44,066 --> 00:26:46,300
{\an8}The spores are erupting!
560
00:26:46,333 --> 00:26:50,433
{\an1}But back in the mid-1800s,
chemists discovered
561
00:26:50,466 --> 00:26:55,133
{\an1}that they could add to cellulosewhat are called "nitro groups,"
562
00:26:55,166 --> 00:26:58,866
each a nitrogen
and two oxygen atoms.
563
00:26:58,900 --> 00:27:01,700
{\an7}That turned it into
nitrocellulose,
564
00:27:01,733 --> 00:27:04,233
{\an7}also called gun cotton.
565
00:27:04,266 --> 00:27:07,133
{\an7}Those nitro groups made
something
566
00:27:07,166 --> 00:27:08,766
{\an7}that burns like this...
567
00:27:08,800 --> 00:27:11,800
{\an7}into something that burns
like this--
568
00:27:11,833 --> 00:27:14,333
{\an8}flash paper.
569
00:27:15,233 --> 00:27:17,900
{\an1}But nitrocellulose is no joke.
570
00:27:17,933 --> 00:27:22,200
{\an1}In a confined space, like a gun
barrel, it can be powerful.
571
00:27:22,233 --> 00:27:24,800
{\an1}It was the propellant
the military used to launch
572
00:27:24,833 --> 00:27:29,266
{\an1}the shells out of these 16-inchguns on Iowa-class battleships.
573
00:27:29,300 --> 00:27:31,366
(loud blast)
574
00:27:31,400 --> 00:27:34,100
{\an1}And it's still a propellant
today
575
00:27:34,133 --> 00:27:37,133
{\an1}in 155-millimeter artillery.
576
00:27:37,166 --> 00:27:39,433
(loud blast)
577
00:27:39,466 --> 00:27:41,966
♪
578
00:27:42,000 --> 00:27:42,966
Our next test...
579
00:27:43,000 --> 00:27:44,400
MYRKLE:
Okay.
580
00:27:44,433 --> 00:27:48,133
POGUE:
...is 50 pounds of
nitrocellulose propellant,
581
00:27:48,166 --> 00:27:51,166
{\an1}the kind used in those
large-bore guns.
582
00:27:51,200 --> 00:27:54,666
{\an1}We give you 50 pounds
of gun cotton.
583
00:27:54,700 --> 00:27:58,500
{\an1}Since the sphere container isn't
sealed, it won't explode.
584
00:27:58,533 --> 00:28:00,333
Delivered
unto the earth.
585
00:28:00,366 --> 00:28:01,333
{\an1}But what will happen?
586
00:28:01,366 --> 00:28:04,600
{\an1}After Jonathan wires it up,
we head
587
00:28:04,633 --> 00:28:08,366
{\an1}to a nearby bunker to find out.
588
00:28:08,400 --> 00:28:09,566
{\an1}MYRKLE:Here we go.
589
00:28:09,600 --> 00:28:11,500
{\an1}Three, two, one...
590
00:28:11,533 --> 00:28:14,133
{\an8}♪
591
00:28:14,166 --> 00:28:17,833
{\an8}POGUE:
Compared to plain cotton,
this is a show.
592
00:28:17,866 --> 00:28:19,233
{\an7}The burning nitrocellulose
593
00:28:19,266 --> 00:28:23,766
{\an7}generates rapidly expandinggases, including carbon dioxide,
594
00:28:23,800 --> 00:28:27,966
{\an7}carbon monoxide, water vapor,
and, of course, nitrogen.
595
00:28:28,000 --> 00:28:29,700
It's pretty.
596
00:28:29,733 --> 00:28:32,900
{\an7}Packed behind a shell
in the barrel of a gun,
597
00:28:32,933 --> 00:28:35,733
{\an7}the pressure from the
expanding gases would hurl
598
00:28:35,766 --> 00:28:37,900
{\an7}the shell forward.
599
00:28:37,933 --> 00:28:40,733
{\an7}In our open bowl,
it's more like fireworks,
600
00:28:40,766 --> 00:28:44,633
{\an7}with the gases sending
burning pellets up in the air.
601
00:28:44,666 --> 00:28:45,700
{\an8}PLEVA:
That's just a propellant.
602
00:28:45,733 --> 00:28:47,233
{\an7}That's a low grade here.
603
00:28:47,266 --> 00:28:49,866
{\an7}We're going to move onto actual explosives now.
604
00:28:49,900 --> 00:28:50,933
{\an8}Oh yeah?Yeah.
605
00:28:50,966 --> 00:28:52,133
{\an8}What's first up?
606
00:28:52,166 --> 00:28:53,833
{\an8}So we're going to start offwith ANFO.
ANFO?
607
00:28:53,866 --> 00:28:56,066
{\an8}That is the biggest miningexplosive that we have.
608
00:28:56,100 --> 00:28:57,066
Oh, cool!
609
00:28:57,100 --> 00:28:59,133
♪
610
00:28:59,166 --> 00:29:04,133
POGUE:ANFO is an industrial explosiveused in mining and construction.
611
00:29:04,166 --> 00:29:08,466
It accounts for about 80%
of all the explosives used
612
00:29:08,500 --> 00:29:09,633
{\an1}in North America.
613
00:29:09,666 --> 00:29:11,933
(loud explosion)
614
00:29:11,966 --> 00:29:15,300
{\an1}Probably no chemical showsbetter the intimate relationship
615
00:29:15,333 --> 00:29:19,433
{\an1}between fertilizer
and explosives.
616
00:29:19,466 --> 00:29:24,033
{\an1}Though the name ANFO stands for
ammonium nitrate and fuel oil,
617
00:29:24,066 --> 00:29:27,266
{\an7}it's over 90% ammonium nitrate--
618
00:29:27,300 --> 00:29:31,600
{\an8}the same stuff
as synthetic fertilizer.
619
00:29:31,633 --> 00:29:34,600
{\an8}Ammonium nitrate is built around
nitrogen atoms
620
00:29:34,633 --> 00:29:38,866
{\an7}so it packs way more nitrogen
than nitrocellulose.
621
00:29:40,033 --> 00:29:44,266
{\an1}That means ammonium nitrate
can be very dangerous.
622
00:29:44,300 --> 00:29:48,333
{\an1}This is the aftermath of the
deadliest industrial accident
623
00:29:48,366 --> 00:29:51,800
in U.S. history,
the explosion of over
624
00:29:51,833 --> 00:29:55,400
{\an1}2,000 tons of ammonium nitrate
625
00:29:55,433 --> 00:30:02,033
{\an1}aboard a ship in Texas City,
Texas, in 1947.
626
00:30:02,066 --> 00:30:06,233
{\an1}In 2020 in Beirut, Lebanon,
there was similar explosion.
627
00:30:06,266 --> 00:30:09,700
(loud explosion)
628
00:30:09,733 --> 00:30:12,633
{\an1}A waterfront warehouse
containing thousands of tons
629
00:30:12,666 --> 00:30:17,366
{\an1}of ammonium nitrate caught fire
and detonated.
630
00:30:17,400 --> 00:30:19,433
(loud explosion)
631
00:30:19,466 --> 00:30:23,300
{\an1}The blast killed over
200 people, injured thousands,
632
00:30:23,333 --> 00:30:28,133
{\an1}and left an estimated 300,000
homeless.
633
00:30:31,900 --> 00:30:35,266
{\an1}Our ANFO test will be just
50 pounds of the stuff.
634
00:30:35,300 --> 00:30:36,300
MYRKLE:
50 pounds.
635
00:30:36,333 --> 00:30:38,733
POGUE:
To get a reaction going,
636
00:30:38,766 --> 00:30:40,966
{\an1}even one that will release
a lot of bang,
637
00:30:41,000 --> 00:30:43,366
{\an1}you need to put some energy
into it first
638
00:30:43,400 --> 00:30:46,366
{\an1}to get some of the bonds
to break.
639
00:30:46,400 --> 00:30:50,100
{\an1}That's called activation energy.
640
00:30:50,133 --> 00:30:53,000
{\an7}This is nitrogen triiodide,
641
00:30:53,033 --> 00:30:54,700
{\an7}an explosive whose existence
642
00:30:54,733 --> 00:30:56,133
{\an7}is so precarious...
643
00:30:56,166 --> 00:30:57,700
{\an8}(muffled puff)
644
00:30:57,733 --> 00:31:00,833
{\an7}...minimal activation energy
is needed.
645
00:31:00,866 --> 00:31:03,366
{\an7}Even just the touch
of a feather.
646
00:31:03,400 --> 00:31:07,000
{\an8}(muffled puff)
647
00:31:07,033 --> 00:31:11,400
In contrast,
ANFO is hard to set off.
648
00:31:11,433 --> 00:31:16,000
So Jonathan hooks up a booster--
a smaller explosive.
649
00:31:16,033 --> 00:31:17,500
♪
650
00:31:17,533 --> 00:31:21,000
{\an1}Since much of EMRTC's researchand training involves explosions
651
00:31:21,033 --> 00:31:23,366
{\an1}in human-occupied environments,
652
00:31:23,400 --> 00:31:26,400
{\an1}they typically add
a wooden dummy for scale
653
00:31:26,433 --> 00:31:30,033
{\an1}and to demonstrate
an explosive's effect.
654
00:31:30,066 --> 00:31:31,966
{\an5}MYRKLE:
You good?
Good.
655
00:31:32,000 --> 00:31:32,966
Okay here we go.
656
00:31:33,000 --> 00:31:34,000
Three, two, one...
657
00:31:34,033 --> 00:31:37,266
{\an8}(loud explosion)
658
00:31:37,300 --> 00:31:39,200
{\an8}(Pogue laughing)
659
00:31:39,233 --> 00:31:41,466
That, my friend,
is a firecracker.
660
00:31:41,500 --> 00:31:42,800
{\an1}That was like seven stories.
661
00:31:42,833 --> 00:31:44,200
{\an1}So, what just happened?
662
00:31:44,233 --> 00:31:48,333
{\an1}(tape rewinding sound)
663
00:31:48,366 --> 00:31:51,400
{\an1}Jonathan ignites the booster...
664
00:31:51,433 --> 00:31:53,033
{\an8}(loud explosion)
665
00:31:53,066 --> 00:31:55,233
{\an7}...that's the black smoke
you see.
666
00:31:55,266 --> 00:31:58,533
{\an7}The pressure wave fromthe exploding booster, in turn,
667
00:31:58,566 --> 00:32:00,533
{\an7}detonates the ANFO,
668
00:32:00,566 --> 00:32:03,833
{\an7}breaking the bonds holding
the ANFO atoms together.
669
00:32:03,866 --> 00:32:06,800
{\an1}They rearrange into more
stable gases--
670
00:32:06,833 --> 00:32:09,466
{\an1}nitrogen, carbon dioxide
and water vapor,
671
00:32:09,500 --> 00:32:14,600
{\an1}along with some carbon monoxide
and nitrogen oxides.
672
00:32:14,633 --> 00:32:16,933
{\an1}The hot gases rapidly expand,
673
00:32:16,966 --> 00:32:19,233
{\an1}creating a supersonic shockwave
674
00:32:19,266 --> 00:32:23,000
{\an1}traveling at about two miles
per second.
675
00:32:23,033 --> 00:32:26,233
{\an1}If you look at justthe nitrogen atoms of the ANFO,
676
00:32:26,266 --> 00:32:29,066
{\an1}it's like the un-Haber process.
677
00:32:29,100 --> 00:32:32,800
{\an1}Most of the nitrogens from the
ammonium ions and nitrate ions
678
00:32:32,833 --> 00:32:38,900
{\an1}reunite into their more stable
preferred state, N2.
679
00:32:38,933 --> 00:32:41,700
{\an8}(loud explosion)
680
00:32:41,733 --> 00:32:44,766
{\an8}In fact, about half of the power
of the ANFO explosion
681
00:32:44,800 --> 00:32:46,700
{\an1}comes from nitrogen atoms
682
00:32:46,733 --> 00:32:49,000
reforming into
nitrogen molecules.
683
00:32:49,033 --> 00:32:50,933
♪
684
00:32:50,966 --> 00:32:54,433
{\an1}Here we are, what,
a quarter of a mile away?
685
00:32:54,466 --> 00:32:56,466
{\an1}And you could feelthe ground shaking.
686
00:32:56,500 --> 00:32:58,466
{\an3}Yup.And that's 50 pounds.
687
00:32:58,500 --> 00:32:59,933
{\an1}That's only 50 pounds, yes.
688
00:32:59,966 --> 00:33:03,533
POGUE:
Next up: you've seen it
in movies...
689
00:33:03,566 --> 00:33:06,500
(explosions)
690
00:33:06,533 --> 00:33:09,066
{\an1}...and you probably even know
its name.
691
00:33:09,100 --> 00:33:10,966
{\an1}What's that?
That's C-4.
692
00:33:11,000 --> 00:33:15,066
{\an1}(gunshot, loud explosions)
693
00:33:15,100 --> 00:33:17,933
POGUE:
And just one look
at its active ingredient
694
00:33:17,966 --> 00:33:20,533
should tell you
we've upped our game.
695
00:33:20,566 --> 00:33:23,333
Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine--
696
00:33:23,366 --> 00:33:27,433
{\an7}commonly known as RDX.
697
00:33:27,466 --> 00:33:29,333
{\an7}While it has three nitro groups,
698
00:33:29,366 --> 00:33:33,000
{\an7}there's even more nitrogen
built into its ring.
699
00:33:33,033 --> 00:33:35,233
And even though
the nitrogen triple bond
700
00:33:35,266 --> 00:33:37,666
{\an1}is one of the strongest
in nature,
701
00:33:37,700 --> 00:33:40,900
{\an1}the single bonds between
the nitrogen in the ring
702
00:33:40,933 --> 00:33:44,333
{\an1}and the nitro groups
are rather weak,
703
00:33:44,366 --> 00:33:47,566
{\an1}often the first to fail
when detonated.
704
00:33:47,600 --> 00:33:49,333
♪
705
00:33:49,366 --> 00:33:53,733
Oh my...
706
00:33:53,766 --> 00:33:55,133
The last one for the day
for us.
707
00:33:55,166 --> 00:33:57,633
Ah, yeah, 50 pounds of C-4.
708
00:33:57,666 --> 00:33:58,666
POGUE:All right.
709
00:33:58,700 --> 00:34:00,000
(chuckles)
710
00:34:00,033 --> 00:34:03,333
Should I be offended that...they've dressed him like me?
711
00:34:03,366 --> 00:34:05,833
(laughing):Is there a hidden messagein that?
712
00:34:05,866 --> 00:34:08,433
{\an1}I wouldn't take it personal
but... you know.
713
00:34:08,466 --> 00:34:09,466
{\an1}(chuckling):All right.
714
00:34:09,500 --> 00:34:14,633
(whip cracking,
Western music playing)
715
00:34:14,666 --> 00:34:15,700
(record scratch)
716
00:34:15,733 --> 00:34:19,066
Oh wait,I've gotta go do that...
717
00:34:19,100 --> 00:34:20,300
{\an1}Oh, but it looked so cool!
718
00:34:20,333 --> 00:34:22,200
{\an7}I know, I know...
719
00:34:22,233 --> 00:34:24,533
MYRKLE:
Charging.
720
00:34:24,566 --> 00:34:25,866
Okay, here we go.
721
00:34:25,900 --> 00:34:27,833
Three, two, one.
722
00:34:27,866 --> 00:34:29,566
(loud explosion)
723
00:34:31,000 --> 00:34:32,866
{\an1}(distant explosion echoes)
724
00:34:32,900 --> 00:34:34,600
{\an1}(laughing):
Oh, my God!
725
00:34:34,633 --> 00:34:37,766
{\an8}(loud explosion)
726
00:34:37,800 --> 00:34:41,033
POGUE:
When the detonation pressure
wave hits the RDX molecule,
727
00:34:41,066 --> 00:34:45,366
{\an1}the ring compresses
and then flies apart.
728
00:34:45,400 --> 00:34:49,066
{\an1}The atoms recombine into
carbon monoxide, water vapor,
729
00:34:49,100 --> 00:34:50,866
{\an1}and nitrogen gas.
730
00:34:50,900 --> 00:34:54,366
{\an1}Those reactions produce
far more heat than ANFO does,
731
00:34:54,400 --> 00:34:57,166
{\an1}which makes the gases expand
much more rapidly,
732
00:34:57,200 --> 00:35:03,333
{\an1}giving RDX over twice
the explosive power.
733
00:35:03,366 --> 00:35:06,033
PLEVA:So we have more heat and energy
in there.
734
00:35:06,066 --> 00:35:08,100
And there's more nitrogenin there.
735
00:35:08,133 --> 00:35:09,933
Exactly.
736
00:35:09,966 --> 00:35:12,166
{\an8}(loud explosion)
737
00:35:12,200 --> 00:35:15,500
POGUE:
Does that mean that the future
is just all nitrogen?
738
00:35:15,533 --> 00:35:16,733
That is the goal.
739
00:35:16,766 --> 00:35:20,133
We are trying to make
entirely nitrogen-composed
740
00:35:20,166 --> 00:35:21,633
explosive molecules.
741
00:35:21,666 --> 00:35:24,833
POGUE:
Here's one from the drawing
boards with a great name:
742
00:35:24,866 --> 00:35:27,133
{\an8}octaazacubane.
743
00:35:27,166 --> 00:35:28,433
{\an7}Entirely made of nitrogen,
744
00:35:28,466 --> 00:35:31,700
{\an1}it is predicted to havea faster velocity of detonation
745
00:35:31,733 --> 00:35:34,933
{\an1}than any known non-nuclear
explosive...
746
00:35:34,966 --> 00:35:40,133
{\an1}if someone can just figure out
how to make it.
747
00:35:40,166 --> 00:35:44,366
{\an1}I think that's all that's left.
748
00:35:44,400 --> 00:35:48,800
{\an1}And so ends our day of the
un-Haber-Bosch process.
749
00:35:48,833 --> 00:35:49,933
♪
750
00:35:49,966 --> 00:35:52,100
{\an1}Much of the nitrogen
in our explosives
751
00:35:52,133 --> 00:35:54,333
{\an1}has returned to its happy,
752
00:35:54,366 --> 00:35:57,200
{\an1}or at least extremely inert,
state,
753
00:35:57,233 --> 00:36:01,766
{\an1}as N2 molecules in the
atmosphere over New Mexico.
754
00:36:01,800 --> 00:36:04,400
{\an1}(Western music playing)
755
00:36:04,433 --> 00:36:08,666
{\an7}In chemistry, reactions tend
to consume other ingredients,
756
00:36:08,700 --> 00:36:10,933
{\an7}transforming them
into something new.
757
00:36:10,966 --> 00:36:13,533
{\an1}That's the process that
chemical equations
758
00:36:13,566 --> 00:36:15,333
{\an1}are designed to explain.
759
00:36:15,366 --> 00:36:19,266
{\an1}But in biology, moleculescan sometimes bind to each other
760
00:36:19,300 --> 00:36:22,666
{\an1}without consuming or producing
anything new.
761
00:36:22,700 --> 00:36:25,400
{\an1}They can act as triggers
or messengers.
762
00:36:25,433 --> 00:36:31,933
{\an1}Or, as it's sometimes described,like a key fitting into a lock.
763
00:36:33,600 --> 00:36:36,266
♪
764
00:36:36,300 --> 00:36:38,100
{\an1}To learn more about molecular
"locks and keys,"
765
00:36:38,133 --> 00:36:41,866
{\an1}I've come to experience them
viscerally.
766
00:36:41,900 --> 00:36:43,133
Mmm...
(laughing)
767
00:36:43,166 --> 00:36:44,766
(coughs)
Oh! Wow!
768
00:36:44,800 --> 00:36:48,133
...here at the Berks Pepper Jam,
in Bethel, Pennsylvania.
769
00:36:48,166 --> 00:36:49,833
{\an8}Smell that! Mm!
770
00:36:49,866 --> 00:36:51,733
{\an8}POGUE:
An annual festival of food,
771
00:36:51,766 --> 00:36:55,200
{\an1}entertainment, and contests...
772
00:36:55,233 --> 00:36:58,633
{\an1}all centered on chili peppers.
773
00:36:58,666 --> 00:37:00,166
Reaper Evil hot sauce.
774
00:37:00,200 --> 00:37:01,800
{\an1}They do have an ambulance
on hand, right?
775
00:37:01,833 --> 00:37:03,700
They do.
776
00:37:03,733 --> 00:37:06,300
POGUE:
When it comes to peppers,
I'm a novice.
777
00:37:06,333 --> 00:37:09,700
{\an1}But the first thing you needto know is that the black pepper
778
00:37:09,733 --> 00:37:12,733
{\an1}you see sitting with salt,
and chili peppers,
779
00:37:12,766 --> 00:37:16,400
{\an1}have different chemistries
and histories.
780
00:37:16,433 --> 00:37:18,100
♪
781
00:37:18,133 --> 00:37:20,300
{\an1}Black pepper is the dried
ground-up fruit
782
00:37:20,333 --> 00:37:24,500
{\an1}of a flowering vine
native to Asia.
783
00:37:24,533 --> 00:37:29,466
{\an7}Its kick comes mainly from
the molecule piperine.
784
00:37:29,500 --> 00:37:33,066
{\an1}While one side of the world
had black pepper,
785
00:37:33,100 --> 00:37:34,700
{\an1}the other side had
chili peppers--
786
00:37:34,733 --> 00:37:36,600
{\an1}first domesticated
by Mesoamericans,
787
00:37:36,633 --> 00:37:41,266
{\an1}and then traded around the world
by European explorers.
788
00:37:41,300 --> 00:37:44,666
{\an1}The main active ingredient
in chili peppers
789
00:37:44,700 --> 00:37:47,500
{\an7}is the molecule capsaicin.
790
00:37:47,533 --> 00:37:49,933
{\an7}More on that in a bit.
791
00:37:49,966 --> 00:37:54,266
{\an1}Three, two, one-- eat!
792
00:37:54,300 --> 00:37:56,266
POGUE:
The Jam features
a pepper-eating contest...
793
00:37:56,300 --> 00:38:00,400
for kids,
but they wouldn't let me in.
794
00:38:00,433 --> 00:38:03,833
{\an1}So I plan on entering
the one for adults...
795
00:38:03,866 --> 00:38:06,400
{\an1}after I get some advice.
796
00:38:06,433 --> 00:38:09,033
{\an1}I've actually never eaten
a pepper by itself.
797
00:38:09,066 --> 00:38:10,900
{\an1}Bow out when you feel
you should.
798
00:38:10,933 --> 00:38:12,033
Really?
799
00:38:12,066 --> 00:38:14,400
A raw pepper is a
completely different deal.
800
00:38:14,433 --> 00:38:15,533
I can't do it.
801
00:38:15,566 --> 00:38:16,666
You can't eat a reaper?!
802
00:38:16,700 --> 00:38:18,033
POGUE:Is there any wayI can prepare?
803
00:38:18,066 --> 00:38:19,100
{\an1}Well, drink water...
804
00:38:19,133 --> 00:38:20,600
{\an1}You got your will made out?(David laughs)
805
00:38:20,633 --> 00:38:23,433
{\an1}You don't have anything to dofor the next three days, do you?
806
00:38:23,466 --> 00:38:24,866
{\an1}MAN:Yeah, you're going to feel greatMonday morning.
807
00:38:24,900 --> 00:38:26,466
{\an1}(laughter)
808
00:38:26,500 --> 00:38:27,933
EMCEE:
A big round of applause
for Lizzie.
809
00:38:27,966 --> 00:38:29,400
Well done!
810
00:38:29,433 --> 00:38:31,166
{\an1}(cheers and applause)
811
00:38:31,200 --> 00:38:34,000
{\an8}POGUE:
Time to put my tongue
to the test.
812
00:38:34,033 --> 00:38:36,733
{\an8}MAN:Long hots, red Fresno...
813
00:38:36,766 --> 00:38:38,333
POGUE:
Here's how the contest works:
814
00:38:38,366 --> 00:38:41,466
{\an7}there are ten rounds of
increasingly hot peppers...
815
00:38:41,500 --> 00:38:44,100
{\an7}Peach Copenhagen...
816
00:38:44,133 --> 00:38:45,333
Big Red Mama.
817
00:38:45,366 --> 00:38:47,666
POGUE:
...their spiciness measured
on a scale
818
00:38:47,700 --> 00:38:52,200
{\an1}invented in 1912 by pharmacist
Wilbur Scoville.
819
00:38:52,233 --> 00:38:56,466
{\an1}It estimates the amount
of capsaicin in each pepper.
820
00:38:56,500 --> 00:39:00,766
{\an1}Contestants have to eat
a pepper...
821
00:39:00,800 --> 00:39:03,033
{\an1}and then wait two-and-a-half
minutes
822
00:39:03,066 --> 00:39:04,700
{\an1}to allow the burn to grow.
823
00:39:04,733 --> 00:39:06,666
{\an1}If they drink the milk
in front of them--
824
00:39:06,700 --> 00:39:09,766
{\an1}a popular way to douse a tongue
on fire...
825
00:39:09,800 --> 00:39:11,533
They are eliminated.
826
00:39:11,566 --> 00:39:12,933
POGUE:
They're out.
827
00:39:12,966 --> 00:39:16,733
{\an1}My competitors includesome rugged-looking characters.
828
00:39:16,766 --> 00:39:17,766
{\an1}And Leah...
829
00:39:17,800 --> 00:39:18,800
LEAH:
I've never done this before.
830
00:39:18,833 --> 00:39:20,733
{\an1}I figured this out
two hours ago.
831
00:39:20,766 --> 00:39:23,300
POGUE:
...a 15-year-old who entered
with the permission
832
00:39:23,333 --> 00:39:25,566
of her parents.
(cheers and applause)
833
00:39:25,600 --> 00:39:27,100
{\an1}Whoo! Bring it on!
834
00:39:27,133 --> 00:39:28,433
EMCEE:
We begin our contest
835
00:39:28,466 --> 00:39:29,833
{\an1}with the long hots...
836
00:39:31,066 --> 00:39:32,700
{\an1}Let's turn up the heat!
837
00:39:32,733 --> 00:39:34,333
{\an9}Eat!
838
00:39:34,366 --> 00:39:37,333
POGUE:
And we're off!
839
00:39:37,366 --> 00:39:39,633
{\an1}Zesty, with just a hint
of poison.
840
00:39:39,666 --> 00:39:41,600
{\an1}EMCEE: Round two we're going to
start
841
00:39:41,633 --> 00:39:43,700
{\an1}with the red Fresno pepper.
842
00:39:43,733 --> 00:39:45,866
{\an1}Eat! Eat! Eat!Eat! Eat! Eat!
843
00:39:45,900 --> 00:39:48,533
{\an1}There's got to be some easier
way to learn about molecules.
844
00:39:48,566 --> 00:39:52,800
{\an5}EMCEE:
All right, are we ready? Eat!
845
00:39:52,833 --> 00:39:55,866
{\an5}That was not designed
for human consumption.
846
00:39:55,900 --> 00:39:59,066
{\an4}EMCEE: Round number four:
habanero peppers.
847
00:40:00,100 --> 00:40:01,700
{\an4}POGUE:
Parts of my body
848
00:40:01,733 --> 00:40:03,566
{\an4}I didn't know I had are on fire.
849
00:40:03,600 --> 00:40:04,700
EMCEE:
Ten more seconds.
You got this.
850
00:40:04,733 --> 00:40:05,766
POGUE:
I can't, I can't.
851
00:40:05,800 --> 00:40:10,166
EMCEE::
No! Don't do it! No!
852
00:40:10,200 --> 00:40:13,966
{\an5}EMCEE:
The orange Copenhagen pepper.
853
00:40:14,000 --> 00:40:15,866
{\an5}Eat!
854
00:40:15,900 --> 00:40:18,966
{\an1}What am I doing?!
855
00:40:19,000 --> 00:40:20,166
Oh man...
856
00:40:20,200 --> 00:40:21,400
Oh my God!
857
00:40:21,433 --> 00:40:22,366
(coughing)
858
00:40:22,400 --> 00:40:23,933
Don't do it!
I want it!
859
00:40:23,966 --> 00:40:27,000
{\an1}Wherever you are, Scoville...
I hope you rot!
860
00:40:28,100 --> 00:40:29,766
{\an1}(steam whistling)
861
00:40:29,800 --> 00:40:33,400
Cheers!
No!
862
00:40:33,433 --> 00:40:35,033
POGUE:
So I'm the first to fall...
863
00:40:35,066 --> 00:40:36,933
{\an1}(cheers and applause)
Thank you.
864
00:40:36,966 --> 00:40:38,766
Is there a Port-A-Potty?
865
00:40:38,800 --> 00:40:40,266
But there's a bigger mystery...
866
00:40:40,300 --> 00:40:45,433
{\an1}How does a pepper's capsaicinconvince my mouth it's on fire?
867
00:40:45,466 --> 00:40:47,200
{\an1}Not recommended.
868
00:40:48,533 --> 00:40:50,566
{\an1}I think I'll find
the answer here
869
00:40:50,600 --> 00:40:54,933
{\an1}at Penn State University's
Department of Food Science.
870
00:40:54,966 --> 00:40:56,100
{\an1}We all study food.
871
00:40:56,133 --> 00:40:57,700
{\an1}So you have psychologists,and microbiologists...
872
00:40:57,733 --> 00:41:00,666
POGUE:
I'm here to see John Hayes.
873
00:41:00,700 --> 00:41:03,500
{\an1}He knows a thing or two
about the active ingredient
874
00:41:03,533 --> 00:41:05,866
in these.
875
00:41:05,900 --> 00:41:09,166
HAYES:
So when you went and tasted
them, what did you experience?
876
00:41:09,200 --> 00:41:10,166
Oh, man.
877
00:41:10,200 --> 00:41:12,033
My gut twisted,
878
00:41:12,066 --> 00:41:13,766
{\an1}my tongue burned,
879
00:41:13,800 --> 00:41:15,133
{\an1}my flesh burned, I cried,
880
00:41:15,166 --> 00:41:17,166
{\an1}I got red, my nose ran.
881
00:41:17,200 --> 00:41:21,300
(echoing):It's like putting your tongue onthe stove and leaving it there.
882
00:41:21,333 --> 00:41:23,333
HAYES:
That was an aversive response.
883
00:41:23,366 --> 00:41:27,966
{\an7}This plant has evolved a
chemical called capsaicin.
884
00:41:28,000 --> 00:41:30,000
{\an7}And the reason it makes that
885
00:41:30,033 --> 00:41:33,033
{\an7}is to keep animalsfrom eating the chili pepper.
886
00:41:33,066 --> 00:41:36,766
{\an8}(laughing):
Oh man, the chili festival
people never got that message.
887
00:41:36,800 --> 00:41:38,666
And we're just a
really stupid species?
888
00:41:38,700 --> 00:41:39,866
{\an1}Exactly.
889
00:41:39,900 --> 00:41:42,200
{\an1}We're one of the only speciesthat learns to like
890
00:41:42,233 --> 00:41:43,700
{\an1}that sensation.
891
00:41:43,733 --> 00:41:47,466
POGUE:
Ultimately, pepper plantsare playing a pretty good trick
892
00:41:47,500 --> 00:41:49,433
on humans as well.
893
00:41:49,466 --> 00:41:53,666
{\an1}Capsaicin really is a "key"
ingredient.
894
00:41:53,700 --> 00:41:57,366
{\an1}It has a long spindly tail
attached to a ring.
895
00:41:57,400 --> 00:42:01,233
HAYES:
That ring end fits into
a specific receptor
896
00:42:01,266 --> 00:42:03,033
that's expressed all overyour body.
897
00:42:03,066 --> 00:42:04,333
Not just our tongue?
898
00:42:04,366 --> 00:42:06,300
Not just your tongue.
(chuckling):
Oh man.
899
00:42:06,333 --> 00:42:11,033
This receptor, this lock,is actually a heat pain sensor.
900
00:42:11,066 --> 00:42:16,100
POGUE:
Normally the receptor,
called TRPV1,
901
00:42:16,133 --> 00:42:18,200
{\an1}activates when it comes
in contact with something
902
00:42:18,233 --> 00:42:21,700
{\an1}over 106 degrees.
903
00:42:21,733 --> 00:42:24,466
{\an1}The result is a pain message
to the brain.
904
00:42:24,500 --> 00:42:27,500
{\an1}"Ouch! Something's hot!"
(whistling)
905
00:42:27,533 --> 00:42:30,300
{\an1}It's a warning signal
to tell your body, "Danger."
906
00:42:30,333 --> 00:42:32,966
POGUE:
And here's the tricky part:
907
00:42:33,000 --> 00:42:36,366
{\an1}when you eat peppers,
those capsaicin keys
908
00:42:36,400 --> 00:42:39,633
{\an1}fit into the heat pain receptors
in your mouth,
909
00:42:39,666 --> 00:42:42,600
{\an1}altering their sensitivity.
910
00:42:42,633 --> 00:42:45,500
{\an1}And so, what the capsaicin doesis it fits into
911
00:42:45,533 --> 00:42:47,133
{\an1}this molecular thermometer,
912
00:42:47,166 --> 00:42:49,733
{\an1}and it lowers the temperatureat which it activates it.
913
00:42:49,766 --> 00:42:52,833
POGUE:
Like a changed thermostat,
914
00:42:52,866 --> 00:42:56,033
{\an1}they now activate
at body temperature,
915
00:42:56,066 --> 00:42:58,933
{\an1}sending a false signal that'sidentical to the one your brain
916
00:42:58,966 --> 00:43:04,466
{\an1}would receive if you atesomething literally burning hot.
917
00:43:04,500 --> 00:43:07,466
{\an1}It lowers the temperatureat which we feel burning pain...
918
00:43:07,500 --> 00:43:10,200
{\an1}Yes.
...but it's not actually
burning us?
919
00:43:10,233 --> 00:43:13,000
Correct.
It's not... I'm not going
to see scar tissue...
920
00:43:13,033 --> 00:43:15,866
{\an4}No.
No matter how hot it is,
it's all a fake-out?
921
00:43:15,900 --> 00:43:17,466
Absolutely.
922
00:43:17,500 --> 00:43:18,466
(applause)
923
00:43:18,500 --> 00:43:19,533
EMCEE:
Up next...
924
00:43:19,566 --> 00:43:21,800
{\an1}the Yellow Seven Pot pepper.
925
00:43:21,833 --> 00:43:24,966
POGUE:
Back in Bethel,
the pepper-eating contest
926
00:43:25,000 --> 00:43:26,866
{\an1}is entering its final rounds.
927
00:43:26,900 --> 00:43:29,433
EMCEE:
Eat!
928
00:43:29,466 --> 00:43:31,866
That was warm.
929
00:43:31,900 --> 00:43:33,633
{\an1}Oh, it's burning now.
930
00:43:33,666 --> 00:43:35,833
{\an1}I'm trying to think
of a happy place.
931
00:43:35,866 --> 00:43:37,066
{\an1}I can't find one.
932
00:43:37,100 --> 00:43:39,666
POGUE:
Evidence that capsaicin's
working on
933
00:43:39,700 --> 00:43:42,000
{\an1}the molecular locks of
everyone's heat pain sensors
934
00:43:42,033 --> 00:43:45,166
is easy to see,
935
00:43:45,200 --> 00:43:48,300
{\an1}as they eat a Big Red Mama,
936
00:43:48,333 --> 00:43:52,266
{\an1}rated at over a million
Scoville heat units.
937
00:43:52,300 --> 00:43:53,800
EMCEE:
Don't tap out now!
938
00:43:53,833 --> 00:43:55,666
Don't tap out!
939
00:43:55,700 --> 00:43:59,066
POGUE:
One more falls.
940
00:43:59,100 --> 00:44:01,700
{\an1}We're down to the final four.
941
00:44:01,733 --> 00:44:03,600
{\an4}(cheers and applause)
EMCEE:
I'm ready to leave.
942
00:44:03,633 --> 00:44:05,766
(laughing):
I can't abuse these people
anymore.
943
00:44:05,800 --> 00:44:10,666
POGUE:
This time, the organizer adds
concentrated pepper extract.
944
00:44:10,700 --> 00:44:15,366
♪
945
00:44:15,400 --> 00:44:18,866
{\an1}How long can this go on?
946
00:44:18,900 --> 00:44:22,066
(crying)
947
00:44:22,100 --> 00:44:25,633
{\an1}Then suddenly a resolution
that no one saw coming.
948
00:44:25,666 --> 00:44:27,233
{\an1}(cheers and applause)
949
00:44:27,266 --> 00:44:28,633
EMCEE:
Whoa!
950
00:44:28,666 --> 00:44:31,133
Leah beat 'em!
951
00:44:31,166 --> 00:44:32,900
{\an1}(cheers and applause)
952
00:44:32,933 --> 00:44:34,833
{\an1}Big round of applause!
953
00:44:34,866 --> 00:44:36,700
{\an1}Big round of applause.
954
00:44:36,733 --> 00:44:38,466
Leah, I am not worthy.
955
00:44:38,500 --> 00:44:40,000
You rock!
956
00:44:40,033 --> 00:44:43,366
{\an1}What does a woman with that
fortitude and strength
957
00:44:43,400 --> 00:44:45,100
{\an1}want to be when she grows up?
958
00:44:45,133 --> 00:44:46,466
A fighter pilot.
(laughs)
959
00:44:46,500 --> 00:44:48,433
Why am I not surprised?
960
00:44:48,466 --> 00:44:50,000
(laughing)
(sighs)
961
00:44:51,633 --> 00:44:55,433
POGUE:
Ultimately, the capsaicin
molecule is an illusionist,
962
00:44:55,466 --> 00:44:57,100
able to trick my nervous system
963
00:44:57,133 --> 00:45:00,300
{\an1}into thinking my mouth
is on fire.
964
00:45:00,333 --> 00:45:04,666
{\an1}But what about the molecules
that pose real danger?
965
00:45:04,700 --> 00:45:09,266
{\an1}Molecules designed by nature
to kill?
966
00:45:09,300 --> 00:45:13,333
{\an1}Time to meet my first professor
of venoms--
967
00:45:13,366 --> 00:45:16,366
Mandeë Holford
of Hunter College.
968
00:45:20,100 --> 00:45:22,266
Now, I couldn't help noticing,
969
00:45:22,300 --> 00:45:24,200
there's a huge, terrifyingtarantula on me.
970
00:45:24,233 --> 00:45:26,166
Is she poisonous?
971
00:45:26,200 --> 00:45:27,166
No, no,
972
00:45:27,200 --> 00:45:29,100
{\an1}she's not poisonous.Oh, whew!
973
00:45:29,133 --> 00:45:33,900
{\an7}She is, however, venomous,
and could still be lethal.
974
00:45:33,933 --> 00:45:36,500
{\an7}Thanks for bringing that up.
(laughing)
975
00:45:36,533 --> 00:45:38,866
{\an7}Poisonous and venomousdon't mean the same thing?
976
00:45:38,900 --> 00:45:39,966
No, no, no, not at all.
977
00:45:40,000 --> 00:45:43,133
POGUE:
Poisonous versus venomous:
978
00:45:43,166 --> 00:45:45,600
{\an1}it all comes down to
the delivery system.
979
00:45:45,633 --> 00:45:50,100
{\an1}If you bite it and get sick,
it's poisonous.
980
00:45:50,133 --> 00:45:54,800
{\an1}But if it bites youand you get sick, it's venomous.
981
00:45:54,833 --> 00:45:59,433
{\an1}In general, the source of their
toxins is different as well.
982
00:45:59,466 --> 00:46:03,766
{\an1}This poison dart frog becomes
poisonous from its diet.
983
00:46:03,800 --> 00:46:07,300
{\an1}If raised in captivity
on different foods,
984
00:46:07,333 --> 00:46:09,666
{\an1}it can become non-toxic.
985
00:46:09,700 --> 00:46:11,533
{\an1}(tail rattling, snake hissing)
986
00:46:11,566 --> 00:46:14,833
{\an1}Whereas this rattlesnake
generates its own venom.
987
00:46:14,866 --> 00:46:17,133
{\an1}It's built into its DNA.
988
00:46:17,166 --> 00:46:19,566
So snakes,
989
00:46:19,600 --> 00:46:21,066
scorpions,
990
00:46:21,100 --> 00:46:22,966
spiders--
991
00:46:23,000 --> 00:46:26,566
{\an1}which fearsome creature is the
focus of Mandeë's work?
992
00:46:26,600 --> 00:46:28,433
Killer...
993
00:46:28,466 --> 00:46:31,933
...snails?
994
00:46:31,966 --> 00:46:35,133
{\an1}Is it accurate to say that you
study killer snails?
995
00:46:35,166 --> 00:46:36,933
{\an1}(imitating stabbing sound)
996
00:46:36,966 --> 00:46:40,100
{\an7}Killer snails are actually
my affectionate term
997
00:46:40,133 --> 00:46:42,166
{\an7}for venomous marine snails.
998
00:46:42,200 --> 00:46:44,366
{\an7}And so these are snails
that live in the sea,
999
00:46:44,400 --> 00:46:45,366
{\an1}and they have a venom,
1000
00:46:45,400 --> 00:46:48,900
{\an1}like snakes or scorpions
or spiders,
1001
00:46:48,933 --> 00:46:52,266
{\an1}and the venom can be very lethal
to humans.
1002
00:46:52,300 --> 00:46:55,333
POGUE:
It's true that the snail
can kill you.
1003
00:46:55,366 --> 00:46:58,500
{\an1}But usually it's just
looking for dinner--
1004
00:46:58,533 --> 00:47:00,533
{\an1}a worm or a fish.
1005
00:47:00,566 --> 00:47:01,800
So I'm a fish.
1006
00:47:01,833 --> 00:47:03,133
{\an1}What happens to me?
1007
00:47:03,166 --> 00:47:05,900
Well, what happens is
this guy will smell
1008
00:47:05,933 --> 00:47:07,200
that you're in
the water, right?
1009
00:47:07,233 --> 00:47:09,533
{\an1}He puts out something
called a siphon,
1010
00:47:09,566 --> 00:47:12,366
{\an1}and it's a chemosensory organ.
1011
00:47:12,400 --> 00:47:14,266
Smells that,"Hmm, tasty meal in the water."
1012
00:47:14,300 --> 00:47:16,266
{\an1}Then it sticks out something
like a tongue,
1013
00:47:16,300 --> 00:47:19,233
{\an1}it's called a false tongue,
proboscis.
1014
00:47:19,266 --> 00:47:22,233
{\an1}And on the tip of the tongue,
it has a little tooth,
1015
00:47:22,266 --> 00:47:23,366
{\an1}filled with venom
1016
00:47:23,400 --> 00:47:26,500
{\an1}that then will get injected
into the fish.
1017
00:47:26,533 --> 00:47:29,233
{\an1}The fish instantly will become
paralyzed,
1018
00:47:29,266 --> 00:47:32,533
{\an1}depending on what cocktailof venom gets injected into it,
1019
00:47:32,566 --> 00:47:34,500
{\an1}the snail will then open
its mouth really wide,
1020
00:47:34,533 --> 00:47:39,666
{\an1}swallow the fish whole and have
a really nice, tasty meal.
1021
00:47:39,700 --> 00:47:41,000
♪
1022
00:47:41,033 --> 00:47:43,033
{\an1}The whole thing sounds
so improbable.
1023
00:47:43,066 --> 00:47:44,633
I love it.(laughs)
1024
00:47:44,666 --> 00:47:46,633
Just when you think you've heard
of everything,
1025
00:47:46,666 --> 00:47:48,933
{\an1}nature will surprise you
with something new.
1026
00:47:48,966 --> 00:47:50,200
♪
1027
00:47:50,233 --> 00:47:53,100
POGUE:
So what's in that
paralyzing venom?
1028
00:47:53,133 --> 00:47:54,533
To find out, Mandeë and her team
1029
00:47:54,566 --> 00:47:57,266
{\an1}collect specimens from around
the world.
1030
00:47:57,300 --> 00:47:59,633
♪
1031
00:47:59,666 --> 00:48:01,133
Back at the lab,
1032
00:48:01,166 --> 00:48:05,300
{\an1}they analyze tissue samples
from the snail's muscular foot
1033
00:48:05,333 --> 00:48:08,133
{\an1}and its venom gland.
1034
00:48:08,166 --> 00:48:10,633
GORSON:
So we're eventually going
to look at the DNA,
1035
00:48:10,666 --> 00:48:13,366
{\an7}so we can make a species
identification.
1036
00:48:13,400 --> 00:48:15,433
{\an7}And that we can use
the foot tissue for.
1037
00:48:15,466 --> 00:48:17,033
{\an7}And then the venom gland tissue,
1038
00:48:17,066 --> 00:48:19,533
{\an1}we can use to look for
the individual
1039
00:48:19,566 --> 00:48:23,033
{\an1}venom toxins within
the venom duct.
1040
00:48:23,066 --> 00:48:24,566
♪
1041
00:48:24,600 --> 00:48:26,633
POGUE:Turns out the cone snail's venom
1042
00:48:26,666 --> 00:48:29,400
isn't one thing, but a cocktail
1043
00:48:29,433 --> 00:48:33,333
{\an1}of as many as 250 short "mini"
proteins,
1044
00:48:33,366 --> 00:48:36,433
{\an1}also called peptides.
1045
00:48:36,466 --> 00:48:37,700
{\an1}So if you think of venom,
1046
00:48:37,733 --> 00:48:42,233
{\an1}think of it not as like
a single bullet, right?
1047
00:48:42,266 --> 00:48:45,000
{\an1}It's more like I like to
describe it as a cluster bomb.
1048
00:48:45,033 --> 00:48:46,766
(laughing)
It's a series of bullets
1049
00:48:46,800 --> 00:48:50,733
{\an1}coming at you and each
individual bullet has a target
1050
00:48:50,766 --> 00:48:52,566
{\an1}in the physiological system.
1051
00:48:52,600 --> 00:48:58,333
POGUE:
Each venom peptide has evolvedto mount a very specific attack,
1052
00:48:58,366 --> 00:49:04,366
{\an1}often acting as keys that fit
a cell's lock-like receptors.
1053
00:49:04,400 --> 00:49:06,466
In the case
of the nervous system,
1054
00:49:06,500 --> 00:49:08,566
that can prevent
a specific neuron
1055
00:49:08,600 --> 00:49:11,200
{\an1}from transmitting an impulse.
1056
00:49:11,233 --> 00:49:13,866
Or, conversely,
jam the neuron open,
1057
00:49:13,900 --> 00:49:17,400
{\an1}generating a flood of signals.
1058
00:49:17,433 --> 00:49:18,666
♪
1059
00:49:18,700 --> 00:49:21,733
In the wild,
all those targeted attacks
1060
00:49:21,766 --> 00:49:23,566
{\an1}paralyze the snail's prey,
1061
00:49:23,600 --> 00:49:26,966
{\an1}but the precision with which
the venom peptides act
1062
00:49:27,000 --> 00:49:32,433
{\an1}also means that they may have
another role as medicines.
1063
00:49:32,466 --> 00:49:35,633
{\an1}And so we study these venoms
to try to figure out
1064
00:49:35,666 --> 00:49:39,300
{\an1}novel medicines for treating
things in pain and cancer.
1065
00:49:39,333 --> 00:49:41,566
{\an1}Actually, they make great drugs
1066
00:49:41,600 --> 00:49:42,700
{\an1}because they're highly specific,
1067
00:49:42,733 --> 00:49:45,733
{\an1}very fast-acting,
and very potent.
1068
00:49:45,766 --> 00:49:50,400
POGUE:
A venom curing
instead of killing?
1069
00:49:50,433 --> 00:49:53,000
{\an1}Wouldn't be the first time.
1070
00:49:53,033 --> 00:49:56,266
{\an1}There are currently at least
seven drugs on the market
1071
00:49:56,300 --> 00:49:59,266
{\an1}developed out of the study
of venoms.
1072
00:49:59,300 --> 00:50:03,500
{\an1}They include an anticoagulant
derived from medicinal leeches
1073
00:50:03,533 --> 00:50:08,133
{\an7}and a diabetes medicine
from gila monsters.
1074
00:50:08,166 --> 00:50:11,100
{\an1}There's even one already
from cone snails,
1075
00:50:11,133 --> 00:50:14,933
{\an1}an analgesic to treat
severe chronic pain.
1076
00:50:14,966 --> 00:50:18,200
HOLFORD:And it's the exact peptide that
you would find in the venom.
1077
00:50:18,233 --> 00:50:21,433
{\an1}It's not a derivative of it,
it's not a small molecule,
1078
00:50:21,466 --> 00:50:23,866
{\an1}it's exactly as nature
expressed it
1079
00:50:23,900 --> 00:50:25,766
in the animal.
1080
00:50:25,800 --> 00:50:28,400
And I'll just runa simple DNA extraction...
1081
00:50:28,433 --> 00:50:32,833
POGUE:
Mandeë's team has already made
some major breakthroughs.
1082
00:50:32,866 --> 00:50:36,000
{\an1}So I could do a nano LCMS
and see what's inside of here.
1083
00:50:36,033 --> 00:50:39,666
POGUE:
In 2014, they identified
a peptide from another
1084
00:50:39,700 --> 00:50:43,633
{\an1}venomous snail that attacks
liver tumor cells,
1085
00:50:43,666 --> 00:50:45,233
{\an1}inhibiting their growth.
1086
00:50:45,266 --> 00:50:50,100
{\an1}It's cutting-edge work that'sreaping the rewards to be found
1087
00:50:50,133 --> 00:50:55,500
{\an1}at the intersection
of chemistry and biology.
1088
00:50:55,533 --> 00:50:57,533
HOLFORD:
Learning how the venom is used
1089
00:50:57,566 --> 00:51:01,300
{\an1}more in ecological settingshelps to further us in terms of
1090
00:51:01,333 --> 00:51:04,100
{\an1}how we understand how it can be
applied for medicinal
1091
00:51:04,133 --> 00:51:06,266
{\an1}or therapeutic applications.
1092
00:51:06,300 --> 00:51:08,766
{\an1}And so right now, it's a fun
time to be a venom scientist
1093
00:51:08,800 --> 00:51:10,933
{\an1}because those worlds
are colliding.
1094
00:51:10,966 --> 00:51:12,400
♪
1095
00:51:12,433 --> 00:51:15,033
POGUE:
In both chemistry and biology,
1096
00:51:15,066 --> 00:51:19,700
{\an7}change is a story told
through reactions.
1097
00:51:19,733 --> 00:51:22,233
{\an7}And understanding
those reactions
1098
00:51:22,266 --> 00:51:23,733
{\an1}has given us new insights
1099
00:51:23,766 --> 00:51:26,866
{\an1}into both our world
and ourselves.
1100
00:51:26,900 --> 00:51:29,566
CUSSLER:
If you lose this
chemical reaction,
1101
00:51:29,600 --> 00:51:31,300
two billion people starve.
1102
00:51:31,333 --> 00:51:33,466
This is not
a hypothetical issue.
1103
00:51:33,500 --> 00:51:35,700
♪
1104
00:51:35,733 --> 00:51:37,500
POGUE:
And with that comes a lesson.
1105
00:51:37,533 --> 00:51:39,000
(laughing):
Oh man!
1106
00:51:39,033 --> 00:51:42,400
{\an1}Just as a molecule can act
as both a venom
1107
00:51:42,433 --> 00:51:45,000
{\an1}and a medicine...
1108
00:51:45,033 --> 00:51:49,066
{\an1}or one reaction can both
help feed the world
1109
00:51:49,100 --> 00:51:50,933
{\an1}and blow it to bits...
1110
00:51:50,966 --> 00:51:52,133
(loud explosion)
1111
00:51:52,166 --> 00:51:54,533
{\an1}...our scientific knowledge
is a powerful tool.
1112
00:51:54,566 --> 00:51:57,100
The power of bacon!
1113
00:51:57,133 --> 00:51:59,566
♪
1114
00:51:59,600 --> 00:52:03,133
{\an1}But it's up to us to learn
how to use it well
1115
00:52:03,166 --> 00:52:07,200
{\an1}as we continue to go
"Beyond the Elements."
1116
00:52:07,233 --> 00:52:10,233
♪
1117
00:52:32,900 --> 00:52:38,533
{\an8}♪
1118
00:52:48,800 --> 00:52:53,000
{\an7}To order this program on DVD,
visit ShopPBS
1119
00:52:53,033 --> 00:52:56,300
{\an7}or call 1-800-PLAY-PBS.
1120
00:52:56,333 --> 00:52:59,033
{\an7}Episodes of "NOVA" are available
with Passport.
1121
00:52:59,066 --> 00:53:02,633
{\an7}"NOVA" is also available
on Amazon Prime Video.
1122
00:53:02,666 --> 00:53:07,766
{\an8}♪
88506
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