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400,000 years ago,
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this was what the human species
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who reigned over Europe
and Asia looked like.
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Their exceptional hunting skills
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helped them overcome
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some of the most savage
prehistoric beasts.
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Adaptable to even the
most hostile conditions,
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they left their mark everywhere,
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from the coasts of Spain
to the Siberian mountains.
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These were the Neanderthals.
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The last traces of these
extraordinary hunter-gatherers
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date back 40,000 years.
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So what happened?
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For the last 150 years,
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scientists from around the world
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have been trying to get to
the bottom of this mystery.
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They continue tirelessly to excavate sites
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in an attempt to retrace the
history of the Neanderthals.
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(stones clacking)
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Why did they disappear?
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Were they victims of climate change?
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Or of a devastating epidemic?
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Were they wiped out by other humans?
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(Neanderthals yelling)
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Or preyed on by a formidable predator?
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(bear growling)
(Neanderthal yelling)
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Who or what were the culprits?
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All sorts of theories as to
why Neanderthals disappeared
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are being put forward.
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There's an extraordinary
ongoing exploration
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into the history of human life.
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It's a dazzling journey back in time,
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trying to get to the origins of our roots
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and the makeup of our genes.
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It's an unprecedented investigation
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of their prehistoric era
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that will allow us to get to the truth.
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Who killed the Neanderthals?
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(electronic beeping)
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(suspenseful music)
(brush bristling)
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Researchers have been excavating sites
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in forests, along cliffs,
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under rock shelters, and in caves
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to try to solve the mystery.
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These men and women
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are on the trail of this extinct species.
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They've been examining clue after clue,
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analyzing the tiniest trace
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and the slightest piece of evidence.
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Neanderthals lived in Europe,
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the Middle East, and Central Asia
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from 400,000 years ago to 40,000 years ago
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before becoming totally extinct.
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Were they our ancestors,
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our cousins, monsters?
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What did they look like?
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In 1856,
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the very first fossil was
discovered in Germany,
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in a wooded area called
the Neander Valley,
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giving rise to the most
whimsical of interpretations.
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In the middle of the 19th century,
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three years before Darwin's
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Origin of the Species was published,
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it was inconceivable that humans
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might have had an ancestor.
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(speaking in foreign language)
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- [Translator] At the
time of the discovery
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of the Neanderthals,
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there was a sort of taboo.
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The idea that a different species of human
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could have existed was hard
for many scientists to accept,
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simply because no other
humans had been recorded
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in fossil collections.
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- [Narrator] So just who
could this human have been,
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with its elongated cranium
and protuberant eyebrows?
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00:03:26,930 --> 00:03:29,000
For many experts in the 19th century,
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it was merely the corpse of a Cossack,
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returning from the Russian wars.
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The proof was in the
numerous bone fractures
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which supposedly caused his death.
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(speaking in foreign language)
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- [Translator] There is an amazing story
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about the experts who imagined
that the shape of the skull
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was due to the extreme pain
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the man had had to endure.
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This pain had made him constantly
tense his face muscles,
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causing not only the elongated cranium,
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but the sizable protuberance
above his eyes as well.
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(Neanderthal yelling)
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- [Narrator] But in the second
half of the 19th century,
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other bone remains,
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similar to those of this first discovery,
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were found in other countries.
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In total, archeologists
dug up over 270 fossils
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across more than 130 sites.
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The scientists were no longer in doubt.
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They had before them the remains
of another human species.
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But what was it?
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In 1908, Marcellin Boule,
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who founded the Institute of
Human Paleontology in Paris,
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examined one of the first
Neanderthal skeletons
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found in France, at La
Chapelle-aux-Saints.
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His results were unsettling.
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They showed a certain
number of deformities:
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a curved spine and bandy legs,
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similar to those of gorillas.
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Based on these findings,
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the Czech illustrator, Kupka,
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drew an aggressive-looking,
ape-like creature
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covered in hair.
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(speaking in foreign language)
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- [Translator] At the time,
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they didn't have enough information
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about prehistoric human behavior.
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So they had to make drawings,
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and most of those that have remained
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are in fact the most
ludicrous caricatures.
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- [Narrator] These prehistoric humans,
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often compared to animals or to monsters,
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were seen as primitive beings.
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(speaking in foreign language)
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- [Translator] They were like
something from another world,
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conjuring up images of humans
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that were nothing like present-day humans.
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They were obviously
something very unusual,
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bestial, archaic, and primitive.
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There all sorts of pictures
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created of bizarre, disheveled creatures.
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- [Narrator] And this image
of them as savage brutes
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would stick around for a long time.
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(Neanderthal growling)
(woman screaming)
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(Neanderthal growling)
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Were they ape-like creatures
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or humans crippled by
spine deforming diseases?
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Were Neanderthals really the beasts
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depicted by the first anthropologists?
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How can we find out who they really were?
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Today, cutting-edge tools
have enabled scientists
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to entirely reconstruct
their physical appearance.
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Each object is carefully dug
up, numbered, and analyzed
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in order to come up
with the most realistic
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composite image possible of the victim.
147
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So what did Neanderthals really look like?
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(electronic beeping)
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Using the remains of
individual number two,
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found in Spy Cave in Belgium,
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researchers at the Royal
Institute of Natural Science
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have been working to create a 3-D model
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of a Neanderthal skeleton.
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(suspenseful music)
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(researchers chattering quietly)
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Patrick Semal and Tara Chapman
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lead the team, whose first task
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is to produce high resolution scans.
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But there was a major problem.
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The skeleton was incomplete.
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There were bits of certain bones missing,
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and the rib cage and the pelvic bone
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had gone forever.
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- The femur, for example,
is almost complete,
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but is missing a very
small part of the top.
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That's on the right bone.
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But on the left bone,
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it's missing the lower half.
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And how you do this is you
put small points on the bones,
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which we call landmarks,
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and then you put the same
points on both bones,
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the original bone and the other,
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the bone you want to scale to.
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And then what I was able to do
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is once they were similar,
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is then I could cut the bottom
half of the right femur,
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scale to the left, and join them together.
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And then you have a complete bone.
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- [Narrator] This is called
the mirror technique,
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reconstituting missing parts
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by using those from the opposite side.
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When a whole set of bones is missing,
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Tara Chapman's team
called upon laboratories
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from other countries
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to help them solve the puzzle.
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So here, the rib cage and pelvis
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have come from the Neanderthal
remains in Kebara in Israel.
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Once these fossils have been modeled,
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they're scaled to the rest of the skeleton
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using statistical calculations
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based on the proportional
sizes of existing bones.
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- Once we did that,
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we then took the small
fragment of the sacrum
194
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and we measured it against
the new Kebara 2 size,
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and we found that it fit it quite well.
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So for that, we could say, okay.
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And then we took the thorax
198
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and we scaled that to the size
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of the Kebara 2 pelvis as well.
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(electronic beeping)
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- [Narrator] This is the
most precise modeling
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of a Neanderthal to ever to be produced.
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The caricatures have long since gone.
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Thanks to this highly
realistic reconstitution,
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an anatomical analysis
of Neanderthal features
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is now possible.
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(suspenseful music)
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Will this help us to find out
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the cause of their extinction?
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(speaking in foreign language)
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- [Translator] So, the
cranial cavity, is on average
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more or less the same
volume as ours today.
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But the architecture is
completely different from ours.
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The cranium is elongated,
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fairly flat and wide.
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It has a protuberant face
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with a broad, protruding nose.
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- [Narrator] One distinguishing feature,
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a low, receding forehead
220
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with a very pronounced supraorbital ridge.
221
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(speaking in foreign language)
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- [Translator] So, the face
was quite different from ours,
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especially as there
was practically no chin
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under the lower jawbone.
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- [Narrator] Could this physique,
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which was so different from ours,
227
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have been a handicap in their attempt
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to survive a hostile
and brutal environment?
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00:09:31,641 --> 00:09:32,474
(speaking in foreign language)
230
00:09:32,474 --> 00:09:34,670
- [Translator] These
specimens were fairly sturdy,
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with an average estimated
height of 160 centimeters.
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- [Narrator] The skeleton indicated
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that they had a wide, barrel-shaped torso
234
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with powerful hands and feet.
235
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Their short legs and small stature
236
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made them exceptional wrestlers,
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ready for any sort of fight.
238
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(speaking in foreign language)
239
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- [Translator] Neanderthals
had a very sturdy physique
240
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with highly prominent joints,
241
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indicating substantial
muscular development.
242
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They were extremely athletic individuals
243
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who could run long distances.
244
00:10:06,879 --> 00:10:08,770
- [Narrator] Neanderthals
had no physical weaknesses
245
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that would have brought
about their extinction.
246
00:10:13,423 --> 00:10:15,730
But the scientists'
work didn't stop there.
247
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They wanted to find out
how Neanderthals walked.
248
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Was Marcellin Boule right?
249
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Did they walk like gorillas?
250
00:10:24,600 --> 00:10:26,080
By simulating the muscle movement
251
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on the bones of the virtual skeleton,
252
00:10:28,150 --> 00:10:31,020
and by analyzing the wear
and tear on the joints,
253
00:10:31,020 --> 00:10:33,470
they were able to reproduce
the Neanderthal walk.
254
00:10:35,000 --> 00:10:36,160
In the biomechanics lab
255
00:10:36,160 --> 00:10:38,460
of the Universite Libre of Belgium,
256
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Tara Chapman has been working
257
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with Dr. Serge Van Sint Jan
258
00:10:41,890 --> 00:10:44,573
in reconstituting the way
our protagonists walked.
259
00:10:45,990 --> 00:10:48,250
By placing markers in
the exact same places
260
00:10:48,250 --> 00:10:49,980
on a modern-day Homo sapiens'
261
00:10:49,980 --> 00:10:52,490
and on a virtual Neanderthal skeleton,
262
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they're able to compare the
prehistoric way of walking
263
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with ours.
264
00:10:57,515 --> 00:10:58,348
(speaking in foreign language)
265
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- [Translator] We were
able to make the bones
266
00:10:59,490 --> 00:11:00,710
move in space
267
00:11:00,710 --> 00:11:03,770
and then analyze the
bones, one after the other,
268
00:11:03,770 --> 00:11:05,170
for example, while walking
269
00:11:05,170 --> 00:11:07,020
or during a whole series of movements
270
00:11:07,020 --> 00:11:09,420
like throwing a javelin, crouching,
271
00:11:09,420 --> 00:11:10,573
running, and so on.
272
00:11:13,300 --> 00:11:15,310
- [Narrator] Neanderthals
have a very similar morphology
273
00:11:15,310 --> 00:11:16,260
to ours.
274
00:11:16,260 --> 00:11:17,970
And when comparing the motion curves
275
00:11:17,970 --> 00:11:20,430
of prehistoric humans
to modern-day humans,
276
00:11:20,430 --> 00:11:21,530
there's no difference.
277
00:11:22,563 --> 00:11:23,396
(speaking in foreign language)
278
00:11:23,396 --> 00:11:24,590
- [Translator] Neanderthals
certainly didn't walk
279
00:11:24,590 --> 00:11:25,920
in the ape-like manner
280
00:11:25,920 --> 00:11:28,560
that was associated with them in the past,
281
00:11:28,560 --> 00:11:29,840
simply because their joints
282
00:11:29,840 --> 00:11:32,043
were totally consistent
with our own joints.
283
00:11:32,970 --> 00:11:36,100
So from a joint and bone
structure point of view,
284
00:11:36,100 --> 00:11:37,840
there's absolutely no reason to believe
285
00:11:37,840 --> 00:11:39,193
that they walked like apes.
286
00:11:40,500 --> 00:11:41,780
- [Narrator] The idea that Neanderthals
287
00:11:41,780 --> 00:11:43,450
were closer to gorillas than humans
288
00:11:43,450 --> 00:11:45,310
is no longer tenable.
289
00:11:45,310 --> 00:11:46,995
They ran and walked just like us.
290
00:11:46,995 --> 00:11:49,760
(Neanderthals yelling)
(water splashing)
291
00:11:49,760 --> 00:11:51,400
(suspenseful music)
292
00:11:51,400 --> 00:11:52,630
So what was their figure like,
293
00:11:52,630 --> 00:11:54,003
their physical appearance?
294
00:11:58,280 --> 00:12:00,310
Thanks to the analysis
of their muscle mass
295
00:12:00,310 --> 00:12:02,190
and the reconstitution techniques,
296
00:12:02,190 --> 00:12:04,793
it's possible to simulate
a Neanderthal body.
297
00:12:06,410 --> 00:12:07,700
Can their muscles,
298
00:12:07,700 --> 00:12:08,593
skin color,
299
00:12:09,940 --> 00:12:10,803
body hair,
300
00:12:11,770 --> 00:12:13,853
and eye and hair color all be worked out?
301
00:12:18,570 --> 00:12:22,110
In the Max Planck Institute
of Human Evolution in Leipzig,
302
00:12:22,110 --> 00:12:23,240
Jean-Jacques Hublin's team
303
00:12:23,240 --> 00:12:25,590
are trying to identify the
exact color and texture
304
00:12:25,590 --> 00:12:26,823
of our ancestor's skin.
305
00:12:31,827 --> 00:12:33,000
(speaking in foreign language)
306
00:12:33,000 --> 00:12:35,270
- [Translator] One of the
fundamental characteristics
307
00:12:35,270 --> 00:12:36,910
of the human species
308
00:12:36,910 --> 00:12:39,120
is having very little body hair.
309
00:12:39,120 --> 00:12:41,470
Since it's connected to
their ability to sweat,
310
00:12:43,750 --> 00:12:45,270
it's related to the hunting methods
311
00:12:45,270 --> 00:12:47,170
of the first Homo genus in Africa
312
00:12:48,310 --> 00:12:50,030
who were able to hunt their prey
313
00:12:50,030 --> 00:12:52,193
even during the hottest parts of the day.
314
00:12:54,050 --> 00:12:55,370
This is not what other predators
315
00:12:55,370 --> 00:12:57,143
who were more nocturnal used to do.
316
00:13:00,280 --> 00:13:02,540
- [Narrator] Homo genus lost
its covering of body hair
317
00:13:02,540 --> 00:13:04,373
1.7 million years ago.
318
00:13:05,410 --> 00:13:08,280
When Neanderthals appeared
400,000 years ago,
319
00:13:08,280 --> 00:13:10,630
they were not furry
creatures, covered in hair.
320
00:13:11,490 --> 00:13:14,903
Their anthropometric
profile is becoming clearer.
321
00:13:14,903 --> 00:13:16,220
(speaking in foreign language)
322
00:13:16,220 --> 00:13:17,740
- [Translator] Skin color
is something that varies
323
00:13:17,740 --> 00:13:19,520
considerably in humans.
324
00:13:19,520 --> 00:13:22,510
Every time a population moves
away from a sunny region,
325
00:13:22,510 --> 00:13:25,200
an area where there's
lots of ultraviolet light,
326
00:13:25,200 --> 00:13:26,870
towards a region where
there is less light,
327
00:13:26,870 --> 00:13:28,803
it results in a loss of pigmentation.
328
00:13:32,300 --> 00:13:34,190
- [Narrator] Neanderthals
lived in northern latitudes,
329
00:13:34,190 --> 00:13:35,520
where light was scarce,
330
00:13:35,520 --> 00:13:37,520
and they would have had fair skin,
331
00:13:37,520 --> 00:13:38,940
which helps capture the sunlight
332
00:13:38,940 --> 00:13:42,181
and manufacture vitamin D,
vital for bone strength.
333
00:13:42,181 --> 00:13:45,098
(mysterious music)
334
00:13:46,250 --> 00:13:48,870
When the scientists at the Max
Planck Institute in Leipzig
335
00:13:48,870 --> 00:13:51,030
analyzed Neanderthal DNA,
336
00:13:51,030 --> 00:13:52,470
they found the skin and hair colors
337
00:13:52,470 --> 00:13:53,980
to be within the same palette
338
00:13:53,980 --> 00:13:55,603
as that of modern Europeans.
339
00:13:59,970 --> 00:14:03,500
These archaic humans had pale or tan skin,
340
00:14:03,500 --> 00:14:04,940
dark blonde or red hair
341
00:14:04,940 --> 00:14:06,880
with hazel or lighter colored eyes.
342
00:14:07,730 --> 00:14:09,000
(majestic music)
343
00:14:09,000 --> 00:14:11,733
We now have a composite
portrait of our victim.
344
00:14:13,380 --> 00:14:16,300
Neanderthals were sturdy
individuals with powerful muscles,
345
00:14:16,300 --> 00:14:18,610
measuring around 160 centimeters
346
00:14:18,610 --> 00:14:20,990
and weighing 75 kilos.
347
00:14:20,990 --> 00:14:22,490
They were not weak and feeble.
348
00:14:23,770 --> 00:14:25,890
Their brains were as large as ours,
349
00:14:25,890 --> 00:14:27,760
and they walked just like we do.
350
00:14:27,760 --> 00:14:29,610
They weren't prone to
any particular disease,
351
00:14:29,610 --> 00:14:31,771
nor physical disability.
352
00:14:31,771 --> 00:14:32,604
(speaking in foreign language)
353
00:14:32,604 --> 00:14:35,210
- [Translator] Neanderthals
were prehistoric athletes,
354
00:14:35,210 --> 00:14:38,450
whose physique was well
adapted to their environment,
355
00:14:38,450 --> 00:14:41,310
both in terms of climate
and also geographically.
356
00:14:41,310 --> 00:14:43,730
(suspenseful music)
357
00:14:43,730 --> 00:14:45,400
- [Narrator] If these
humans were so well adapated
358
00:14:45,400 --> 00:14:46,780
to their environment,
359
00:14:46,780 --> 00:14:48,163
who were their ancestors?
360
00:14:49,700 --> 00:14:50,800
To answer this,
361
00:14:50,800 --> 00:14:53,600
we need to delve into
the Neanderthal memory,
362
00:14:53,600 --> 00:14:56,490
to browse the great book
of the origins of humanity
363
00:14:56,490 --> 00:14:58,352
and to go back in time.
364
00:14:58,352 --> 00:15:01,435
(electronic beeping)
365
00:15:03,437 --> 00:15:05,730
In the Arago Cave in the Eastern Pyrenees,
366
00:15:05,730 --> 00:15:07,570
scientists discovered the cranium
367
00:15:07,570 --> 00:15:09,703
of the oldest known inhabitant of France.
368
00:15:12,350 --> 00:15:15,060
He lived on this planet
more than 600,000 years ago
369
00:15:15,060 --> 00:15:16,620
and belonged to a subspecies
370
00:15:16,620 --> 00:15:18,123
called Tautavel Man.
371
00:15:21,320 --> 00:15:24,560
Researchers called him
the European Homo erectus,
372
00:15:24,560 --> 00:15:26,563
or Homo heidelbergensis.
373
00:15:27,654 --> 00:15:28,487
(speaking in foreign language)
374
00:15:28,487 --> 00:15:32,610
- [Translator] The skull
dates back 450,000 years
375
00:15:32,610 --> 00:15:35,103
and belonged to a young adult in his 20s.
376
00:15:36,830 --> 00:15:38,760
- [Narrator] Could Tautavel
Man have been the ancestor
377
00:15:38,760 --> 00:15:39,933
to the Neanderthals?
378
00:15:40,970 --> 00:15:43,393
The bone analysis throws
up numerous clues.
379
00:15:44,347 --> 00:15:45,180
(speaking in foreign language)
380
00:15:45,180 --> 00:15:46,800
- [Translator] The cranium was flat
381
00:15:46,800 --> 00:15:49,030
with a receding forehead,
382
00:15:49,030 --> 00:15:51,520
a powerful supraorbital ridge
383
00:15:51,520 --> 00:15:54,370
with a hollow right above the nose,
384
00:15:54,370 --> 00:15:55,263
and no chin.
385
00:15:56,250 --> 00:15:57,190
So, in many ways,
386
00:15:57,190 --> 00:16:01,210
he resembles his direct
descendants, the Neanderthals,
387
00:16:01,210 --> 00:16:02,810
but there are important differences
388
00:16:02,810 --> 00:16:04,893
and characteristics between the two.
389
00:16:05,861 --> 00:16:06,810
(suspenseful music)
390
00:16:06,810 --> 00:16:08,420
- [Narrator] The young
man discovered at Tautavel
391
00:16:08,420 --> 00:16:11,403
has the same anatomical
characteristics as our victim.
392
00:16:13,640 --> 00:16:16,080
Tautavel Man was a taller, thinner species
393
00:16:16,080 --> 00:16:17,183
with a smaller brain.
394
00:16:18,360 --> 00:16:19,580
They weren't Neanderthals,
395
00:16:19,580 --> 00:16:20,930
but would evolve into them.
396
00:16:23,240 --> 00:16:24,280
For thousands of years,
397
00:16:24,280 --> 00:16:26,940
there was a succession of
ice ages and warmer periods
398
00:16:26,940 --> 00:16:29,570
which isolated Homo heidelbergensis,
399
00:16:29,570 --> 00:16:30,923
confining them to Europe.
400
00:16:33,250 --> 00:16:35,470
Their bodies adapted to their environment,
401
00:16:35,470 --> 00:16:37,730
becoming stronger and stockier,
402
00:16:37,730 --> 00:16:39,477
and the size of their brains increased.
403
00:16:39,477 --> 00:16:42,090
(baby crying)
404
00:16:42,090 --> 00:16:43,320
Over the generations,
405
00:16:43,320 --> 00:16:45,633
Tautavel Man became Neanderthals.
406
00:16:50,570 --> 00:16:52,600
Tautavel Man were Neanderthals' ancestors
407
00:16:52,600 --> 00:16:54,000
and passed on their history,
408
00:16:56,710 --> 00:16:59,637
a history which has become
that of the Neanderthals.
409
00:17:02,260 --> 00:17:03,930
And it's a history which goes right back
410
00:17:03,930 --> 00:17:06,110
to the origins of humanity in Africa
411
00:17:06,110 --> 00:17:07,647
over one million years ago.
412
00:17:09,513 --> 00:17:10,346
(speaking in foreign language)
413
00:17:10,346 --> 00:17:11,490
- [Translator] The European Neanderthals
414
00:17:11,490 --> 00:17:16,040
descended from a population
called Homo heidelbergensis.
415
00:17:16,040 --> 00:17:19,450
This population also existed in Africa.
416
00:17:19,450 --> 00:17:22,440
The Homo heidelbergensis
who stayed in Africa
417
00:17:22,440 --> 00:17:24,343
became Homo sapiens.
418
00:17:25,430 --> 00:17:29,600
The European Homo heidelbergensis
became Neanderthals,
419
00:17:29,600 --> 00:17:31,957
but those in Africa became Homo sapiens.
420
00:17:31,957 --> 00:17:34,957
(suspenseful music)
421
00:17:35,980 --> 00:17:38,400
- [Narrator] Neanderthals
have the same parents as us,
422
00:17:38,400 --> 00:17:41,703
Homo heidelbergensis or
evolved Homo erectus.
423
00:17:44,340 --> 00:17:46,893
Neanderthals are our human
brothers and sisters.
424
00:17:49,320 --> 00:17:50,290
A million years ago,
425
00:17:50,290 --> 00:17:52,913
our common ancestors lived
on the African continent.
426
00:17:54,530 --> 00:17:56,230
Around 600,000 years ago,
427
00:17:56,230 --> 00:17:58,290
the family divided in two.
428
00:17:58,290 --> 00:18:00,380
Our direct ancestors stayed in Africa,
429
00:18:00,380 --> 00:18:02,780
whereas the ancestors of the Neanderthals
430
00:18:02,780 --> 00:18:05,620
crossed into the Middle
East and settled in Europe.
431
00:18:05,620 --> 00:18:07,920
Traces of them have been found in Germany,
432
00:18:07,920 --> 00:18:10,420
in Sima de los Huesos in Spain,
433
00:18:10,420 --> 00:18:12,293
and in the Arago Cave in Tautavel.
434
00:18:14,330 --> 00:18:17,760
Neanderthals seemed to be able
to adapt to climate change,
435
00:18:17,760 --> 00:18:19,280
but was there a major upheaval
436
00:18:19,280 --> 00:18:21,280
which was the cause of their extinction?
437
00:18:26,150 --> 00:18:27,520
To find out more,
438
00:18:27,520 --> 00:18:30,370
it's important to know exactly
when they became extinct
439
00:18:32,100 --> 00:18:34,690
by dating the bone remains
and comparing the data
440
00:18:34,690 --> 00:18:36,440
with the climate history of Europe.
441
00:18:38,580 --> 00:18:42,320
At the Oxford University
Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit,
442
00:18:42,320 --> 00:18:45,210
Aikaterina Douka has managed
to determine the date
443
00:18:45,210 --> 00:18:46,860
of the death of the Neanderthals.
444
00:18:47,830 --> 00:18:49,650
- In order to accurately date
445
00:18:49,650 --> 00:18:51,300
the latest Neanderthals,
446
00:18:51,300 --> 00:18:53,960
we visited several sites across Europe
447
00:18:53,960 --> 00:18:57,340
and collected material from Spain, France,
448
00:18:57,340 --> 00:18:59,720
several sites in Italy, Greece,
449
00:18:59,720 --> 00:19:00,860
and of course, Northern Europe,
450
00:19:00,860 --> 00:19:02,677
where we know Neanderthals used to live.
451
00:19:02,677 --> 00:19:03,950
(machinery buzzing)
452
00:19:03,950 --> 00:19:06,000
- [Narrator] In this
Oxford University lab,
453
00:19:06,000 --> 00:19:07,960
researchers have developed
a whole new technique
454
00:19:07,960 --> 00:19:09,883
for dating bone fossil remains.
455
00:19:11,600 --> 00:19:14,100
To avoid contamination,
the samples are filtered
456
00:19:14,100 --> 00:19:17,083
so that only the carbon-14
in fossils is analyzed.
457
00:19:19,140 --> 00:19:21,427
This is known as ultrafiltration.
458
00:19:23,822 --> 00:19:25,500
- We didn't know what to expect
459
00:19:25,500 --> 00:19:28,180
because the results
were coming one by one,
460
00:19:28,180 --> 00:19:30,287
and for years, we would date one site
461
00:19:30,287 --> 00:19:31,570
and date another.
462
00:19:31,570 --> 00:19:35,540
But it was only when we put
all the synthesis together
463
00:19:35,540 --> 00:19:38,270
that things became quite clear.
464
00:19:38,270 --> 00:19:40,753
There were no sites all across Europe
465
00:19:40,753 --> 00:19:44,420
that would postdate 39,000 years ago.
466
00:19:44,420 --> 00:19:47,340
We were very excited when we eventually,
467
00:19:47,340 --> 00:19:49,470
for the first time, we got a reliable date
468
00:19:49,470 --> 00:19:51,557
for the extinction of Neanderthals.
469
00:19:51,557 --> 00:19:54,557
(suspenseful music)
470
00:19:56,970 --> 00:19:59,340
- [Narrator] 39,000 years ago,
471
00:19:59,340 --> 00:20:00,930
the disappearance of the Neanderthals
472
00:20:00,930 --> 00:20:03,080
came much earlier than
previously imagined.
473
00:20:04,500 --> 00:20:06,460
Scientists now want to find out
474
00:20:06,460 --> 00:20:09,023
what the weather in Europe
was like at the time.
475
00:20:10,410 --> 00:20:11,860
Was the climate temperate
476
00:20:11,860 --> 00:20:13,453
or was there a severe ice age?
477
00:20:14,853 --> 00:20:19,853
(birds cawing)
(waves crashing)
478
00:20:20,112 --> 00:20:21,390
(speaking in foreign language)
479
00:20:21,390 --> 00:20:22,960
- [Translator] In fact, the
climate was very unstable
480
00:20:22,960 --> 00:20:23,993
during that period.
481
00:20:24,885 --> 00:20:26,790
There were a whole
series of climate crises
482
00:20:26,790 --> 00:20:28,803
which we call Heinrich events.
483
00:20:30,070 --> 00:20:31,790
They are fairly ferocious episodes
484
00:20:31,790 --> 00:20:33,530
linked to ice flowing into the oceans
485
00:20:33,530 --> 00:20:35,018
in the Northern Hemisphere.
486
00:20:35,018 --> 00:20:36,840
(suspenseful music)
487
00:20:36,840 --> 00:20:38,060
- [Narrator] For over a century,
488
00:20:38,060 --> 00:20:39,660
icebergs float relentlessly
489
00:20:39,660 --> 00:20:41,660
all the way down to the coasts of Spain.
490
00:20:42,850 --> 00:20:45,260
These mountains of ice
considerably cooled down
491
00:20:45,260 --> 00:20:47,393
the climate in Europe 40,000 years ago.
492
00:20:48,230 --> 00:20:51,403
Scientists call this
climate event Heinrich 4.
493
00:20:52,517 --> 00:20:53,350
(speaking in foreign language)
494
00:20:53,350 --> 00:20:54,400
- [Translator] It's
important to understand
495
00:20:54,400 --> 00:20:56,890
that these environmental
and climate crises
496
00:20:56,890 --> 00:20:59,460
happen constantly over 400,000 years,
497
00:20:59,460 --> 00:21:03,000
and Neanderthals would
have experienced them all.
498
00:21:03,000 --> 00:21:05,030
And yet, they weren't wiped out.
499
00:21:05,030 --> 00:21:07,130
What is true is that the coldest episodes
500
00:21:07,130 --> 00:21:08,540
would have had an impact on the size
501
00:21:08,540 --> 00:21:10,713
of Neanderthal populations in general.
502
00:21:12,198 --> 00:21:13,031
(Neanderthals speaking
in foreign language)
503
00:21:13,031 --> 00:21:14,270
- [Narrator] The different
climactic upheavals
504
00:21:14,270 --> 00:21:15,470
weakened the Neanderthals
505
00:21:15,470 --> 00:21:17,740
by reducing the extent of their territory
506
00:21:17,740 --> 00:21:19,713
and making food resources scarce.
507
00:21:21,630 --> 00:21:23,290
But these sturdy individuals
508
00:21:23,290 --> 00:21:25,100
were nevertheless able to survive
509
00:21:25,100 --> 00:21:27,028
and continued to exist on the planet.
510
00:21:27,028 --> 00:21:30,028
(suspenseful music)
511
00:21:31,210 --> 00:21:33,170
If the extinction of the Neanderthals
512
00:21:33,170 --> 00:21:35,100
can't be explained by the climate,
513
00:21:35,100 --> 00:21:37,143
perhaps their way of life was the cause.
514
00:21:39,740 --> 00:21:41,950
Were their know-how and their
technologies good enough
515
00:21:41,950 --> 00:21:44,373
to enable them to resist
the prehistoric era?
516
00:21:45,555 --> 00:21:47,930
(fire crackling)
517
00:21:47,930 --> 00:21:50,040
What did their habitat,
stretching from Gibraltar
518
00:21:50,040 --> 00:21:51,840
to Mount Altai in Siberia,
519
00:21:51,840 --> 00:21:54,290
and from Germany to the
south of Italy look like?
520
00:21:55,240 --> 00:21:56,763
How and on what did they live?
521
00:21:58,800 --> 00:22:00,280
Did they regularly change camp
522
00:22:00,280 --> 00:22:01,340
according to the seasons
523
00:22:01,340 --> 00:22:04,397
and the movements of
the animals they hunted?
524
00:22:04,397 --> 00:22:06,750
(sand squishing)
525
00:22:06,750 --> 00:22:10,140
Neanderthals were very careful
where they pitched camp.
526
00:22:10,140 --> 00:22:12,960
Cave entrances, meadows
overlooking valleys,
527
00:22:12,960 --> 00:22:14,520
or riversides were all examples
528
00:22:14,520 --> 00:22:16,777
of well chosen places to settle.
529
00:22:16,777 --> 00:22:19,248
(birds chirping)
530
00:22:19,248 --> 00:22:20,081
(waves crashing)
531
00:22:20,081 --> 00:22:23,164
(electronic beeping)
532
00:22:27,030 --> 00:22:28,170
Dominique Cliquet and his team
533
00:22:28,170 --> 00:22:30,020
found the most unexpectedly rich site
534
00:22:30,020 --> 00:22:32,180
beneath the dunes of the large beaches
535
00:22:32,180 --> 00:22:35,450
of the Cotentin Peninsula
in Northern France.
536
00:22:35,450 --> 00:22:36,930
Under the sands of Le Rozel,
537
00:22:36,930 --> 00:22:38,280
they discovered 20 meters
538
00:22:38,280 --> 00:22:40,723
of an extremely well
preserved domestic habitat.
539
00:22:42,070 --> 00:22:43,800
The valuable traces left behind
540
00:22:43,800 --> 00:22:45,450
have presented the archeologists
541
00:22:45,450 --> 00:22:48,484
with a true photo of
Neanderthal daily life.
542
00:22:48,484 --> 00:22:50,989
(archeologists chattering quietly)
543
00:22:50,989 --> 00:22:51,839
(speaking in foreign language)
544
00:22:51,839 --> 00:22:53,530
- [Translator] What is
interesting about this site
545
00:22:53,530 --> 00:22:55,740
is that there are levels of occupation
546
00:22:55,740 --> 00:22:58,700
that have been regularly covered by sand,
547
00:22:58,700 --> 00:22:59,880
blown in by the wind.
548
00:22:59,880 --> 00:23:02,960
So we have snapshots, relatively
brief moments of life,
549
00:23:02,960 --> 00:23:04,062
frozen in time,
550
00:23:04,062 --> 00:23:07,083
and then covered over again by sand.
551
00:23:08,986 --> 00:23:09,819
- [Narrator] The site shows us
552
00:23:09,819 --> 00:23:11,870
a degree of social organization
553
00:23:11,870 --> 00:23:13,250
with a distribution of tasks
554
00:23:13,250 --> 00:23:14,850
across the members of the tribe.
555
00:23:16,540 --> 00:23:19,180
The archeologists were able
to define the different zones
556
00:23:19,180 --> 00:23:21,700
dedicated to preparing hides,
557
00:23:21,700 --> 00:23:24,280
cutting meat, and cooking.
558
00:23:24,280 --> 00:23:25,910
Here, we can see a hearth
559
00:23:25,910 --> 00:23:27,754
where Neanderthals cooked their food.
560
00:23:27,754 --> 00:23:32,754
(Neanderthal speaking in foreign language)
561
00:23:33,194 --> 00:23:35,310
A clan made up of a dozen members
562
00:23:35,310 --> 00:23:36,870
regularly came to these dunes
563
00:23:36,870 --> 00:23:38,383
from autumn through to spring.
564
00:23:41,012 --> 00:23:41,845
(Neanderthal sputtering)
565
00:23:41,845 --> 00:23:42,678
(Neanderthal laughing)
566
00:23:42,678 --> 00:23:47,678
(Neanderthal speaking in foreign language)
567
00:23:48,380 --> 00:23:49,270
In Le Rozel,
568
00:23:49,270 --> 00:23:52,020
the sand has preserved unique
traces of their presence:
569
00:23:53,360 --> 00:23:54,373
footprints.
570
00:23:56,340 --> 00:23:59,163
The researchers found more
than 500 of them in all.
571
00:24:00,824 --> 00:24:01,657
(speaking in foreign language)
572
00:24:01,657 --> 00:24:03,100
- [Translator] We found
one, then a second,
573
00:24:03,100 --> 00:24:04,550
then we found several.
574
00:24:04,550 --> 00:24:07,230
Some of them we found
were so clearly imprinted,
575
00:24:07,230 --> 00:24:08,750
impacted into the ground
576
00:24:08,750 --> 00:24:10,430
with the toe marks still visible.
577
00:24:10,430 --> 00:24:13,490
It looked someone had
walked into a barely dried
578
00:24:13,490 --> 00:24:14,910
puddle of mud.
579
00:24:14,910 --> 00:24:16,680
It was absolutely clear
580
00:24:16,680 --> 00:24:17,880
what we were looking at.
581
00:24:20,370 --> 00:24:22,100
- [Narrator] A storm had
broken over the tribe
582
00:24:22,100 --> 00:24:24,213
and their living space was
covered over with silt.
583
00:24:24,213 --> 00:24:26,350
(bird cawing)
584
00:24:26,350 --> 00:24:27,350
And it's in this mud
585
00:24:27,350 --> 00:24:29,250
that our Neanderthals left their mark.
586
00:24:30,540 --> 00:24:32,200
Once the storm had passed,
587
00:24:32,200 --> 00:24:34,670
a strong wind blew a
thick layer of dry sand
588
00:24:34,670 --> 00:24:36,650
over the footprints in the silt,
589
00:24:36,650 --> 00:24:38,688
thus preserving the traces of Neanderthals
590
00:24:38,688 --> 00:24:40,173
for 80,000 years.
591
00:24:44,430 --> 00:24:46,350
This footprint demonstrates
that a Neanderthal
592
00:24:46,350 --> 00:24:48,503
had tried to sidestep an obstacle.
593
00:24:50,855 --> 00:24:51,688
(speaking in foreign language)
594
00:24:51,688 --> 00:24:53,200
- [Translator] The foot
is more heavily imprinted
595
00:24:53,200 --> 00:24:54,100
into the mud,
596
00:24:54,100 --> 00:24:56,883
which splashed up on
both sides of the foot.
597
00:24:57,884 --> 00:25:00,770
The image is of a dynamic Neanderthal,
598
00:25:00,770 --> 00:25:04,483
scrambling up the edges of the sand dune.
599
00:25:06,160 --> 00:25:08,098
- [Narrator] Here, a
Neanderthal had crouched down
600
00:25:08,098 --> 00:25:10,360
and then used his hand to get up,
601
00:25:10,360 --> 00:25:13,400
leaving an imprint of fingers
and palm for posterity
602
00:25:13,400 --> 00:25:14,323
as a signature.
603
00:25:17,879 --> 00:25:20,962
(electronic beeping)
604
00:25:24,661 --> 00:25:26,200
(Neanderthals speaking
in foreign language)
605
00:25:26,200 --> 00:25:28,460
Neanderthals lived on
this coastline in clans,
606
00:25:28,460 --> 00:25:30,210
composed of parents and children,
607
00:25:30,210 --> 00:25:31,768
80,000 years ago.
608
00:25:31,768 --> 00:25:34,955
(waves crashing)
609
00:25:34,955 --> 00:25:35,788
(speaking in foreign language)
610
00:25:35,788 --> 00:25:36,621
- [Translator] And what is really poignant
611
00:25:36,621 --> 00:25:39,110
is that we found numerous
children's footprints,
612
00:25:39,110 --> 00:25:40,780
two small baby feet,
613
00:25:40,780 --> 00:25:42,104
and those of a one-year-old.
614
00:25:42,104 --> 00:25:44,687
(serene music)
615
00:25:46,010 --> 00:25:47,053
- [Narrator] Over one particular area
616
00:25:47,053 --> 00:25:48,740
over 80 square meters,
617
00:25:48,740 --> 00:25:50,520
Dominique's team found only imprints
618
00:25:50,520 --> 00:25:51,603
from children's feet,
619
00:25:53,060 --> 00:25:54,490
as if it had been a play area
620
00:25:54,490 --> 00:25:56,670
just next to the place
where the adults were busy
621
00:25:56,670 --> 00:25:58,590
with daily survival activities,
622
00:25:58,590 --> 00:26:00,790
(children laughing)
623
00:26:00,790 --> 00:26:02,030
almost like a kindergarten
624
00:26:02,030 --> 00:26:03,080
where the youngsters played
625
00:26:03,080 --> 00:26:05,171
while the adults looked on approvingly.
626
00:26:05,171 --> 00:26:07,737
(children laughing)
627
00:26:07,737 --> 00:26:11,487
(footsteps lightly thudding)
628
00:26:12,582 --> 00:26:13,415
(speaking in foreign language)
629
00:26:13,415 --> 00:26:14,450
- [Translator] We could
imagine their daily life.
630
00:26:14,450 --> 00:26:16,490
Especially when we found
trails of footprints,
631
00:26:16,490 --> 00:26:19,060
it was as if Neanderthals
had just passed by.
632
00:26:19,060 --> 00:26:20,170
We almost turned around
633
00:26:20,170 --> 00:26:22,385
to check that they weren't
actually behind us.
634
00:26:22,385 --> 00:26:23,480
(serene music)
635
00:26:23,480 --> 00:26:25,400
(birds cawing)
636
00:26:25,400 --> 00:26:26,610
- [Narrator] Just like the sandcastles
637
00:26:26,610 --> 00:26:28,200
that we all built when we were children,
638
00:26:28,200 --> 00:26:29,303
this site is fragile.
639
00:26:31,860 --> 00:26:33,990
It only takes a drop
of rain or a sea breeze
640
00:26:33,990 --> 00:26:36,090
and these ephemeral traces of the past
641
00:26:36,090 --> 00:26:37,290
would disappear forever.
642
00:26:41,054 --> 00:26:43,637
(birds cawing)
643
00:26:45,660 --> 00:26:47,460
What these well organized camps tell us
644
00:26:47,460 --> 00:26:49,150
about the nomadic Neanderthals
645
00:26:49,150 --> 00:26:51,370
is that they lived here
for as long as they could,
646
00:26:51,370 --> 00:26:53,870
depending on how much food
they could get hold of.
647
00:27:00,570 --> 00:27:02,450
More evidence of daily Neanderthal life
648
00:27:02,450 --> 00:27:04,474
can be found elsewhere in Europe.
649
00:27:04,474 --> 00:27:07,090
(insects chirping)
(footsteps crunching)
650
00:27:07,090 --> 00:27:09,109
At Roc de Marsal in the French Dordogne,
651
00:27:09,109 --> 00:27:12,300
researchers uncovered
numerous traces of hearths,
652
00:27:12,300 --> 00:27:13,800
as can be witnessed by the redness
653
00:27:13,800 --> 00:27:14,877
of these burnt rocks
654
00:27:14,877 --> 00:27:16,420
and the white-colored ashes
655
00:27:16,420 --> 00:27:18,020
found in the layers of sediment.
656
00:27:21,000 --> 00:27:23,833
(stones clacking)
657
00:27:25,980 --> 00:27:27,430
Fire played a crucial role
658
00:27:27,430 --> 00:27:29,450
in the human evolution of Neanderthals,
659
00:27:29,450 --> 00:27:31,340
vital for lighting,
660
00:27:31,340 --> 00:27:32,830
essential for keeping warm,
661
00:27:32,830 --> 00:27:34,200
used for cooking meat,
662
00:27:34,200 --> 00:27:36,833
and a formidable tool for
keeping predators at bay.
663
00:27:37,870 --> 00:27:40,313
Neanderthals certainly
knew how to make fires.
664
00:27:42,750 --> 00:27:44,280
Researchers have even worked out
665
00:27:44,280 --> 00:27:46,703
how Neanderthals went
about producing fire.
666
00:27:48,930 --> 00:27:50,260
They used marcasite,
667
00:27:50,260 --> 00:27:52,060
which contains iron and sulfur
668
00:27:52,060 --> 00:27:53,270
to produce sparks
(stones clacking)
669
00:27:53,270 --> 00:27:54,773
and set alight plant fibers.
670
00:27:56,000 --> 00:28:02,074
OpenSubtitles recommends using Nord VPN
from 3.49 USD/month ----> osdb.link/vpn
671
00:28:03,051 --> 00:28:05,801
(fire crackling)
672
00:28:07,715 --> 00:28:09,840
The striations left on
some of the stone tools
673
00:28:09,840 --> 00:28:11,113
bear out this technique.
674
00:28:14,543 --> 00:28:15,376
(fire crackling)
675
00:28:15,376 --> 00:28:16,630
Neanderthals mastered fire
676
00:28:16,630 --> 00:28:18,820
better than any species before them
677
00:28:18,820 --> 00:28:21,883
and used it as an indispensable
ally in their survival.
678
00:28:23,950 --> 00:28:25,630
Other dig sites have
come up with evidence,
679
00:28:25,630 --> 00:28:28,920
enabling us to understand what
and how a Neanderthal ate.
680
00:28:28,920 --> 00:28:30,440
Is it possible that they died out
681
00:28:30,440 --> 00:28:32,158
because of some dietary deficiency?
682
00:28:32,158 --> 00:28:34,140
(suspenseful music)
683
00:28:34,140 --> 00:28:36,340
In order to find out what our victim ate,
684
00:28:36,340 --> 00:28:38,110
Amanda Henry, research scientist
685
00:28:38,110 --> 00:28:40,400
at the University of
Leiden in the Netherlands
686
00:28:40,400 --> 00:28:43,840
has been analyzing
Neanderthal dental calculus.
687
00:28:43,840 --> 00:28:46,440
This layer of plaque
found on teeth and gums
688
00:28:46,440 --> 00:28:48,900
holds all sorts of unexpected information
689
00:28:48,900 --> 00:28:50,300
about what Neanderthals ate.
690
00:28:51,920 --> 00:28:54,040
- What we're looking
for inside the calculus
691
00:28:54,040 --> 00:28:56,530
are tiny residues of plants,
692
00:28:56,530 --> 00:28:59,490
usually either starch grains or phytoliths
693
00:28:59,490 --> 00:29:01,990
that formed during the plant's lifetime
694
00:29:01,990 --> 00:29:05,900
and that can last over
archeological time spans.
695
00:29:05,900 --> 00:29:07,650
And what we're looking for is the shape
696
00:29:07,650 --> 00:29:10,679
and the size and some of
the morphological features
697
00:29:10,679 --> 00:29:12,630
of these starch grains and phytoliths
698
00:29:12,630 --> 00:29:15,480
in order to figure out
what plant they came from.
699
00:29:15,480 --> 00:29:16,313
(electronic beeping)
700
00:29:16,313 --> 00:29:17,440
- [Narrator] These vegetal remains
701
00:29:17,440 --> 00:29:19,190
show that Neanderthals ate plants,
702
00:29:19,190 --> 00:29:21,350
such as barley, tubers,
703
00:29:21,350 --> 00:29:23,653
water lily roots, and even dates.
704
00:29:24,530 --> 00:29:27,500
But there was something else
that Amanda Henry found out.
705
00:29:27,500 --> 00:29:31,200
- We have found gelatinized
or altered starches
706
00:29:31,200 --> 00:29:34,430
on a few of our Neanderthal
dental calculus samples.
707
00:29:34,430 --> 00:29:36,740
And we think that's pretty strong evidence
708
00:29:36,740 --> 00:29:40,300
that Neanderthals were
intentionally processing their food,
709
00:29:40,300 --> 00:29:41,903
some sort of cooking.
710
00:29:43,125 --> 00:29:43,993
(dramatic music)
711
00:29:43,993 --> 00:29:45,950
(Neanderthals speaking
in foreign language)
712
00:29:45,950 --> 00:29:47,540
- [Narrator] So,
Neanderthals didn't suffer
713
00:29:47,540 --> 00:29:50,190
from deficiencies in
vitamins or mineral salts
714
00:29:50,190 --> 00:29:52,870
since their diets were extremely varied.
715
00:29:52,870 --> 00:29:55,413
They even cooked plants
to make them more edible.
716
00:29:58,070 --> 00:30:00,750
Nevertheless, the numerous
bones found in dig sites
717
00:30:00,750 --> 00:30:03,040
indicate the Neanderthals must primarily
718
00:30:03,040 --> 00:30:03,923
have eaten meat.
719
00:30:05,420 --> 00:30:07,020
Scientists have been able to calculate
720
00:30:07,020 --> 00:30:08,773
how much energy they spent daily.
721
00:30:10,850 --> 00:30:12,070
Due to their powerful muscles
722
00:30:12,070 --> 00:30:14,060
and impressive body mass,
723
00:30:14,060 --> 00:30:16,730
Neanderthals burned around
6,000 calories a day,
724
00:30:16,730 --> 00:30:18,974
three times more than we do.
725
00:30:18,974 --> 00:30:23,974
(Neanderthals speaking
in foreign language)
726
00:30:27,870 --> 00:30:29,550
They would have had to eat meat every day
727
00:30:29,550 --> 00:30:31,570
to satisfy their needs.
728
00:30:31,570 --> 00:30:33,850
Could famine caused by shortage of animals
729
00:30:33,850 --> 00:30:35,927
have been the cause of their extinction?
730
00:30:35,927 --> 00:30:38,800
(somber music)
731
00:30:38,800 --> 00:30:40,720
Marylene Patou-Mathis is a researcher
732
00:30:40,720 --> 00:30:43,460
at the Institute of Human
Paleontology in Paris
733
00:30:43,460 --> 00:30:46,280
and has studied animals
from the Neanderthal era
734
00:30:46,280 --> 00:30:47,530
and how they were hunted.
735
00:30:50,053 --> 00:30:50,920
(speaking in foreign language)
736
00:30:50,920 --> 00:30:53,240
- [Translator] You can forget
the naive, outdated image
737
00:30:53,240 --> 00:30:54,950
of the poor prehistoric man
738
00:30:54,950 --> 00:30:57,140
wandering around the frozen tundra
739
00:30:57,140 --> 00:30:58,370
trying to find food.
740
00:30:58,370 --> 00:31:00,420
This is totally incorrect.
741
00:31:00,420 --> 00:31:01,650
Our studies have shown
742
00:31:01,650 --> 00:31:03,330
that there was a great range of animals
743
00:31:03,330 --> 00:31:05,390
and plenty of them could be hunted,
744
00:31:05,390 --> 00:31:07,100
especially as most of the prey
745
00:31:07,100 --> 00:31:08,930
were in flocks or herds.
746
00:31:08,930 --> 00:31:11,332
Finding food was not a problem.
747
00:31:11,332 --> 00:31:14,391
(dramatic music)
748
00:31:14,391 --> 00:31:16,160
(animals snorting and stampeding)
749
00:31:16,160 --> 00:31:18,760
- [Narrator] Did the Neanderthals
just salvage dead animals
750
00:31:18,760 --> 00:31:20,423
or were they skilled hunters?
751
00:31:22,840 --> 00:31:23,746
At Le Rozel,
752
00:31:23,746 --> 00:31:26,073
Dominique Cliquet uncovered
a strange carcass.
753
00:31:28,581 --> 00:31:29,414
(speaking in foreign language)
754
00:31:29,414 --> 00:31:31,520
- [Translator] We were fortunate
to come across a fragment
755
00:31:31,520 --> 00:31:34,020
of the jawbone of a walrus.
756
00:31:34,020 --> 00:31:35,300
It was almost certainly an animal
757
00:31:35,300 --> 00:31:37,280
that had drifted down on an ice floe
758
00:31:37,280 --> 00:31:39,780
and was probably dead when
washed up on the shore.
759
00:31:40,790 --> 00:31:43,322
The meat was probably scavenged,
760
00:31:43,322 --> 00:31:45,360
although I don't really
like the expression
761
00:31:45,360 --> 00:31:46,850
because it's associated with meat
762
00:31:46,850 --> 00:31:48,560
that's been left out for a while.
763
00:31:48,560 --> 00:31:50,700
And anyway, Neanderthals were like us.
764
00:31:50,700 --> 00:31:51,950
When they ate meat,
765
00:31:51,950 --> 00:31:53,583
they ate perfectly edible meat.
766
00:31:53,583 --> 00:31:55,120
(suspenseful music)
767
00:31:55,120 --> 00:31:57,340
- [Narrator] And carrion
meat can be dangerous.
768
00:31:57,340 --> 00:31:59,250
It has to be kept away
from other carnivores
769
00:31:59,250 --> 00:32:03,010
such as vultures and hyenas.
(bird screeching)
770
00:32:03,010 --> 00:32:04,500
Researchers have also found out
771
00:32:04,500 --> 00:32:07,653
that a Neanderthal menu contained
both fish and shellfish.
772
00:32:09,704 --> 00:32:10,537
(speaking in foreign language)
773
00:32:10,537 --> 00:32:11,550
- [Translator] They made the most
774
00:32:11,550 --> 00:32:14,320
of all the natural resources
they could lay their hands on
775
00:32:14,320 --> 00:32:15,513
for daily survival.
776
00:32:16,910 --> 00:32:19,310
They were knowledgeable
about their environment.
777
00:32:20,374 --> 00:32:23,534
(somber music)
778
00:32:23,534 --> 00:32:26,284
(twigs snapping)
779
00:32:30,890 --> 00:32:33,170
- [Narrator] Even if Neanderthals
took advantage of animals
780
00:32:33,170 --> 00:32:34,470
that were already dead,
781
00:32:34,470 --> 00:32:35,600
they still used hunting
782
00:32:35,600 --> 00:32:37,453
as their principal means of survival.
783
00:32:39,550 --> 00:32:42,870
By analyzing the geography of
the sites of Central Europe,
784
00:32:42,870 --> 00:32:44,350
Marylene Patou-Mathis
785
00:32:44,350 --> 00:32:46,200
worked out that knowledge
of their environment
786
00:32:46,200 --> 00:32:49,240
enabled Neanderthals to
choose suitable places
787
00:32:49,240 --> 00:32:51,660
like water holes or the bottom of valleys
788
00:32:51,660 --> 00:32:54,527
to trap animals and prevent
them from getting away.
789
00:32:54,527 --> 00:32:56,170
(Neanderthal grunting)
790
00:32:56,170 --> 00:32:57,879
- [Translator] I studied
a site a Starosele
791
00:32:57,879 --> 00:32:58,870
in the Crimea
792
00:32:58,870 --> 00:33:01,520
where Neanderthals had
killed small equidae
793
00:33:01,520 --> 00:33:03,050
in an enclosed valley.
794
00:33:03,050 --> 00:33:05,070
First, the beaters drove
them into the valley,
795
00:33:05,070 --> 00:33:06,430
and since it was enclosed,
796
00:33:06,430 --> 00:33:08,400
when they arrived at
the edge of the valley,
797
00:33:08,400 --> 00:33:09,690
the hunters blocked their route
798
00:33:09,690 --> 00:33:11,279
and speared them with lances.
799
00:33:11,279 --> 00:33:12,670
(spear whooshing)
(bison grunting)
800
00:33:12,670 --> 00:33:13,960
- [Narrator] Neanderthals used a range
801
00:33:13,960 --> 00:33:16,820
of well worked strategies
to hunt mammoths,
802
00:33:16,820 --> 00:33:19,160
bisons, oryx,
803
00:33:19,160 --> 00:33:21,210
horses, ibex,
804
00:33:21,210 --> 00:33:22,300
and also smaller prey,
805
00:33:22,300 --> 00:33:24,160
such as hares or groundhogs,
806
00:33:24,160 --> 00:33:25,733
depending on the season.
807
00:33:25,733 --> 00:33:29,060
(Neanderthals grunting)
808
00:33:29,060 --> 00:33:32,350
Were they able to make
sophisticated tools and weapons
809
00:33:32,350 --> 00:33:34,360
powerful and effective enough
(stones clacking)
810
00:33:34,360 --> 00:33:36,005
to kill their prey and skin them?
811
00:33:36,005 --> 00:33:37,050
(Neanderthals grunting)
812
00:33:37,050 --> 00:33:40,900
What about tools to pick and
gather fruit and vegetables?
813
00:33:40,900 --> 00:33:43,370
Or to work on hides and furs?
814
00:33:43,370 --> 00:33:44,580
There's a great deal of evidence
815
00:33:44,580 --> 00:33:47,650
to show that Neanderthals
were exceptional hunters,
816
00:33:47,650 --> 00:33:50,040
such as these carved
stones as sharp as knives
817
00:33:50,040 --> 00:33:52,340
which litter the ground
of their living areas.
818
00:33:54,230 --> 00:33:55,170
Scientists in Germany
819
00:33:55,170 --> 00:33:58,250
have even discovered other
weapons in their armory:
820
00:33:58,250 --> 00:34:01,029
wooden spears whose points
were hardened by fire.
821
00:34:01,029 --> 00:34:02,175
(serene music)
822
00:34:02,175 --> 00:34:05,180
(footsteps tapping lightly)
823
00:34:05,180 --> 00:34:07,610
At the University of
Nanterre in the Paris region,
824
00:34:07,610 --> 00:34:10,320
Eric Boeda is a prehistoric technologist
825
00:34:10,320 --> 00:34:12,390
who has reconstituted the history of tools
826
00:34:12,390 --> 00:34:13,713
invented by humans.
827
00:34:14,901 --> 00:34:16,310
(stones clattering)
828
00:34:16,310 --> 00:34:18,220
For him, Neanderthal inventions
829
00:34:18,220 --> 00:34:20,060
were as good as any other
technical inventions
830
00:34:20,060 --> 00:34:21,383
of major importance.
831
00:34:22,240 --> 00:34:23,460
Before they came along,
832
00:34:23,460 --> 00:34:27,090
human shaped rocks block
by block like sculptors,
833
00:34:27,090 --> 00:34:29,290
but Neanderthals were excellent artisans
834
00:34:29,290 --> 00:34:32,430
and invented a new revolutionary
toolmaking technique.
835
00:34:32,430 --> 00:34:33,920
It consisted of cutting stone
836
00:34:33,920 --> 00:34:35,703
to produce sharp-edged flakes.
837
00:34:37,265 --> 00:34:38,098
(speaking in foreign language)
838
00:34:38,098 --> 00:34:38,950
- [Translator] They already
knew what they wanted
839
00:34:38,950 --> 00:34:40,143
from a block of stone.
840
00:34:41,200 --> 00:34:42,150
The tool they were making
841
00:34:42,150 --> 00:34:44,230
had 10 technical characteristics,
842
00:34:44,230 --> 00:34:45,740
but in theory, the block of stone
843
00:34:45,740 --> 00:34:47,940
wouldn't inherently have them.
844
00:34:47,940 --> 00:34:49,320
The Neanderthal man or woman
845
00:34:49,320 --> 00:34:50,700
would first prepare the block,
846
00:34:50,700 --> 00:34:52,380
giving it a certain shape.
847
00:34:52,380 --> 00:34:54,360
And this shape will
contain the very specific
848
00:34:54,360 --> 00:34:56,323
technical characteristics in question.
849
00:34:58,363 --> 00:34:59,220
(stones clacking)
850
00:34:59,220 --> 00:35:01,120
So once the preparation had been done,
851
00:35:02,670 --> 00:35:04,830
they would strike the rock with one blow
852
00:35:04,830 --> 00:35:07,048
in the prepared place.
853
00:35:07,048 --> 00:35:08,380
And the flake that would be produced
854
00:35:08,380 --> 00:35:10,723
would have exactly the
sharp edge required.
855
00:35:12,825 --> 00:35:14,137
(dramatic music)
856
00:35:14,137 --> 00:35:16,780
(fabric tearing)
857
00:35:16,780 --> 00:35:18,240
- [Narrator] This major new technique
858
00:35:18,240 --> 00:35:19,970
had a considerable advantage.
859
00:35:19,970 --> 00:35:22,730
It enabled several tools with
identical characteristics
860
00:35:22,730 --> 00:35:24,313
to be reproduced quickly.
861
00:35:29,753 --> 00:35:31,500
(speaking in foreign language)
862
00:35:31,500 --> 00:35:33,400
- [Translator] This design
to reproduce the same flakes
863
00:35:33,400 --> 00:35:35,250
was connected not so much to a need
864
00:35:35,250 --> 00:35:37,510
for particularly sharp tools,
865
00:35:37,510 --> 00:35:39,780
but more to the possibility
of standardizing
866
00:35:39,780 --> 00:35:41,933
or normalizing the handheld part.
867
00:35:44,270 --> 00:35:46,360
In other words, handles could be created
868
00:35:46,360 --> 00:35:48,923
that would be adapted to
these identical flakes.
869
00:35:52,850 --> 00:35:54,550
- [Narrator] Neanderthals
invented the assembling
870
00:35:54,550 --> 00:35:56,010
of objects.
871
00:35:56,010 --> 00:35:57,480
The heel shape of these flakes,
872
00:35:57,480 --> 00:36:00,300
like a peaked cap, is evidence of this.
873
00:36:00,300 --> 00:36:03,060
They knew how to attach
carved stones onto a handle
874
00:36:03,060 --> 00:36:04,563
using animal tendons.
875
00:36:07,151 --> 00:36:10,234
(electronic beeping)
876
00:36:11,420 --> 00:36:12,500
In the Middle East,
877
00:36:12,500 --> 00:36:14,890
at the site of Umm el Tlel in Syria,
878
00:36:14,890 --> 00:36:16,666
Eric Boeda discovered another way
879
00:36:16,666 --> 00:36:19,140
Neanderthals attached tools and weapons,
880
00:36:19,140 --> 00:36:21,293
once again highlighting their ingenuity.
881
00:36:25,970 --> 00:36:27,190
(speaking in foreign language)
882
00:36:27,190 --> 00:36:29,520
- [Translator] We found 200
square meters of flakes,
883
00:36:29,520 --> 00:36:32,463
remains of camels,
donkeys, and hunted game.
884
00:36:34,020 --> 00:36:35,653
So it was clearly a normal camp.
885
00:36:36,660 --> 00:36:38,450
When I picked up the first object,
886
00:36:38,450 --> 00:36:40,570
I noticed there was a mark in the ground,
887
00:36:40,570 --> 00:36:42,650
and exactly the same mark was also visible
888
00:36:42,650 --> 00:36:43,960
on the surface of the object
889
00:36:43,960 --> 00:36:46,200
that had been in contact with the ground.
890
00:36:46,200 --> 00:36:48,050
There were a few bits which came away,
891
00:36:48,050 --> 00:36:48,940
but I took these bits
892
00:36:48,940 --> 00:36:50,250
and I burnt some of them,
893
00:36:50,250 --> 00:36:52,550
and it seemed like we'd
found bitumen on them.
894
00:36:54,400 --> 00:36:56,420
- [Narrator] By mixing bitumen with sand
895
00:36:56,420 --> 00:36:58,580
and then cooling it down with water,
896
00:36:58,580 --> 00:37:00,410
the Neanderthals had found a substance
897
00:37:00,410 --> 00:37:01,470
as strong as cement
898
00:37:01,470 --> 00:37:02,670
to glue things together.
899
00:37:04,560 --> 00:37:06,160
Using natural tar in this way
900
00:37:06,160 --> 00:37:07,770
proves once again how inventive
901
00:37:07,770 --> 00:37:09,563
and intelligent this species was.
902
00:37:10,670 --> 00:37:13,250
The innovation spread all
over the Mediterranean,
903
00:37:13,250 --> 00:37:14,930
right up into Germany,
904
00:37:14,930 --> 00:37:17,130
where Neanderthals used a plant-based glue
905
00:37:17,130 --> 00:37:18,531
made from birch sap.
906
00:37:18,531 --> 00:37:21,114
(serene music)
907
00:37:22,900 --> 00:37:27,233
(Neanderthal exhaling and grunting)
908
00:37:36,970 --> 00:37:38,850
On the steep ledges of Mount Hortus
909
00:37:38,850 --> 00:37:40,931
near Montpellier in the south of France,
910
00:37:40,931 --> 00:37:43,360
Neanderthals hunted ibex
from the end of January
911
00:37:43,360 --> 00:37:44,523
right up to the spring.
912
00:37:45,590 --> 00:37:48,640
During an archeological
dig at this hunting spot,
913
00:37:48,640 --> 00:37:50,030
Henry de Lumley uncovered
914
00:37:50,030 --> 00:37:52,650
an apparently insignificant
piece of evidence
915
00:37:52,650 --> 00:37:54,570
which nevertheless
proved that Neanderthals
916
00:37:54,570 --> 00:37:55,963
didn't just hunt for food.
917
00:37:57,169 --> 00:37:58,002
(speaking in foreign language)
918
00:37:58,002 --> 00:37:59,010
- [Translator] In the
remains, which date back
919
00:37:59,010 --> 00:38:00,930
40 to 45,000 years,
920
00:38:00,930 --> 00:38:03,300
we found bones from the legs of panthers
921
00:38:03,300 --> 00:38:05,210
that connected up anatomically,
922
00:38:05,210 --> 00:38:07,443
but nothing else of
the skeleton was found.
923
00:38:08,330 --> 00:38:09,540
This led us to believe
924
00:38:09,540 --> 00:38:11,230
that there must have been a panther skin
925
00:38:11,230 --> 00:38:13,330
with the ends of the paws still inside,
926
00:38:13,330 --> 00:38:15,540
used as a rug or as clothing.
927
00:38:15,540 --> 00:38:17,163
More than that, we couldn't say.
928
00:38:18,800 --> 00:38:20,480
- [Narrator] The use of dead animal hides
929
00:38:20,480 --> 00:38:22,860
is backed up by the presence
of dental wear and tear,
930
00:38:22,860 --> 00:38:24,593
particularly on the incisors.
931
00:38:25,950 --> 00:38:27,540
It's proof that teeth were used
932
00:38:27,540 --> 00:38:28,653
as a third hand.
933
00:38:30,200 --> 00:38:32,680
By holding the animal
skin between the jaws,
934
00:38:32,680 --> 00:38:34,650
Neanderthals were able to pull it tight
935
00:38:34,650 --> 00:38:36,083
and work on it more easily.
936
00:38:37,590 --> 00:38:40,340
(hides rustling)
937
00:38:43,020 --> 00:38:46,040
Masters of fire,
revolutionary stonecutters,
938
00:38:46,040 --> 00:38:49,600
fearsome hunters, creative craftspeople,
939
00:38:49,600 --> 00:38:52,750
the picture of Neanderthals
is becoming clearer.
940
00:38:52,750 --> 00:38:53,960
This great nomadic people
941
00:38:53,960 --> 00:38:55,630
clearly didn't become extinct
942
00:38:55,630 --> 00:38:58,863
through lack of know-how.
(baby crying)
943
00:39:01,590 --> 00:39:04,333
So just how far did these
tireless nomads travel?
944
00:39:06,660 --> 00:39:08,860
Working alongside Russian researchers,
945
00:39:08,860 --> 00:39:11,300
the scientists at Max Planck in Leipzig
946
00:39:11,300 --> 00:39:12,670
have perfected a new technique
947
00:39:12,670 --> 00:39:14,490
for uncovering DNA
948
00:39:14,490 --> 00:39:17,373
even when there are no human
bone remains to excavate.
949
00:39:18,600 --> 00:39:20,380
Here in the Siberian caves,
950
00:39:20,380 --> 00:39:22,325
they're analyzing the sedimentary layers.
951
00:39:22,325 --> 00:39:24,796
(foil crinkling)
952
00:39:24,796 --> 00:39:25,629
(speaking in foreign language)
953
00:39:25,629 --> 00:39:27,300
- [Translator] This is a
fantastic new opportunity
954
00:39:27,300 --> 00:39:28,610
for archeology.
955
00:39:28,610 --> 00:39:30,380
DNA contained in sediment layers
956
00:39:30,380 --> 00:39:33,550
enables us to tell if humans
were present at a dig site,
957
00:39:33,550 --> 00:39:36,820
but also to tell if
Neanderthals were there first,
958
00:39:36,820 --> 00:39:39,500
and then if modern humans
arrived afterwards,
959
00:39:39,500 --> 00:39:42,300
and perhaps the Neanderthals
came back again after that.
960
00:39:44,040 --> 00:39:45,150
- [Narrator] It's a technique which allows
961
00:39:45,150 --> 00:39:47,110
a better definition of
the geographic zones
962
00:39:47,110 --> 00:39:48,310
covered by Neanderthals,
963
00:39:49,280 --> 00:39:50,600
and also perhaps to find out
964
00:39:50,600 --> 00:39:52,490
if they went even further east
965
00:39:52,490 --> 00:39:53,521
at the risk of getting lost.
966
00:39:53,521 --> 00:39:55,050
(footsteps crunching)
967
00:39:55,050 --> 00:39:58,000
The oldest identified
Siberian Neanderthals
968
00:39:58,000 --> 00:40:00,520
were discovered in the Denisova Caves
969
00:40:00,520 --> 00:40:02,757
and arrived there during
a period of global warming
970
00:40:02,757 --> 00:40:05,050
120,000 years ago.
971
00:40:05,050 --> 00:40:07,240
At that time, glaciers only covered
972
00:40:07,240 --> 00:40:09,510
a very small section of the ice caps.
973
00:40:09,510 --> 00:40:11,540
And so whole populations
could travel eastwards
974
00:40:11,540 --> 00:40:13,283
within Asia quite easily.
975
00:40:14,273 --> 00:40:15,140
(speaking in foreign language)
976
00:40:15,140 --> 00:40:16,630
- [Translator] There's
a strong probability
977
00:40:16,630 --> 00:40:18,330
that the Neanderthals traveled
978
00:40:18,330 --> 00:40:20,330
to the easternmost territories
979
00:40:20,330 --> 00:40:22,193
beyond the Siberian mountains.
980
00:40:23,520 --> 00:40:26,320
Thanks to the techniques
of sedimentary analysis,
981
00:40:26,320 --> 00:40:28,750
it's certainly possible to obtain DNA
982
00:40:28,750 --> 00:40:30,283
from open-air sites.
983
00:40:31,250 --> 00:40:32,870
And then we would have proof
984
00:40:32,870 --> 00:40:34,640
of the presence of Neanderthals
985
00:40:34,640 --> 00:40:37,563
in the Far East, in Mongolia, or in China.
986
00:40:40,690 --> 00:40:43,450
- [Narrator] Neanderthals were
completely at home in nature,
987
00:40:43,450 --> 00:40:45,640
and nothing suggests that
their endless migrations
988
00:40:45,640 --> 00:40:47,118
led to their downfall.
989
00:40:47,118 --> 00:40:50,118
(suspenseful music)
990
00:40:52,720 --> 00:40:55,690
All the evidence gathered on
the daily lives of Neanderthals
991
00:40:55,690 --> 00:40:57,010
shows that they must have been able
992
00:40:57,010 --> 00:40:58,750
to communicate amongst themselves
993
00:40:58,750 --> 00:41:01,030
to devise hunting strategies,
994
00:41:01,030 --> 00:41:02,656
to pass down ancestral customs,
995
00:41:02,656 --> 00:41:04,270
(Neanderthals speaking
in foreign language)
996
00:41:04,270 --> 00:41:06,813
to warn fellow travelers
of potential dangers,
997
00:41:08,060 --> 00:41:09,943
or simply to express emotions.
998
00:41:13,250 --> 00:41:16,250
How can we be sure that they
mastered the tools of language?
999
00:41:18,820 --> 00:41:22,210
The first clue came from
the Kebara site in Israel.
1000
00:41:22,210 --> 00:41:24,660
Archeologists found a Neanderthal fossil
1001
00:41:24,660 --> 00:41:27,120
that was almost completely intact.
1002
00:41:27,120 --> 00:41:28,730
And with it, the anatomical proof
1003
00:41:28,730 --> 00:41:30,910
that Neanderthals were
able to express themselves
1004
00:41:30,910 --> 00:41:31,774
with language.
1005
00:41:31,774 --> 00:41:35,440
(suspenseful music)
1006
00:41:35,440 --> 00:41:38,050
This bone, situated in the upper larynx,
1007
00:41:38,050 --> 00:41:40,160
is the hyoid bone,
1008
00:41:40,160 --> 00:41:42,530
which helps to keep the
base of the tongue in place
1009
00:41:42,530 --> 00:41:44,843
and enables sound to be articulated,
1010
00:41:46,890 --> 00:41:48,160
a valuable piece of evidence
1011
00:41:48,160 --> 00:41:50,860
which proves that Neanderthals
could most likely talk.
1012
00:41:53,626 --> 00:41:58,626
(Neanderthals speaking
in foreign language)
1013
00:42:02,133 --> 00:42:04,050
(footsteps tapping)
1014
00:42:04,050 --> 00:42:05,390
More evidence came to life
1015
00:42:05,390 --> 00:42:07,740
thanks to the computer
modeling of the cranium.
1016
00:42:08,920 --> 00:42:12,140
Scientists were able to
recreate the endocranium,
1017
00:42:12,140 --> 00:42:14,213
in other words, the imprint of the brain.
1018
00:42:16,448 --> 00:42:17,386
(speaking in foreign language)
1019
00:42:17,386 --> 00:42:18,219
- [Translator] An endocranium
1020
00:42:18,219 --> 00:42:19,660
is the somewhat magical image
1021
00:42:19,660 --> 00:42:22,780
of something that doesn't
get preserved in fossils.
1022
00:42:22,780 --> 00:42:23,940
It's the brain.
1023
00:42:23,940 --> 00:42:25,160
The brain leaves an imprint
1024
00:42:25,160 --> 00:42:27,170
on the inner surface of the cranium
1025
00:42:27,170 --> 00:42:29,550
because during our growth and development,
1026
00:42:29,550 --> 00:42:32,310
both brain and skull
evolve at the same time.
1027
00:42:32,310 --> 00:42:33,760
The brain presses on the cranium
1028
00:42:33,760 --> 00:42:36,590
and both are bound to
each other as we grow.
1029
00:42:36,590 --> 00:42:38,373
- [Narrator] This cast of
a Neanderthal brain imprint
1030
00:42:38,373 --> 00:42:40,730
shows that they possess the same zones
1031
00:42:40,730 --> 00:42:44,092
associated with language
as modern-day humans.
1032
00:42:44,092 --> 00:42:44,925
(speaking in foreign language)
1033
00:42:44,925 --> 00:42:45,950
- [Translator] We were
able to detect one by one
1034
00:42:45,950 --> 00:42:47,800
the different areas of the brain.
1035
00:42:47,800 --> 00:42:50,507
Here are the frontal
lobes, the temporal lobes,
1036
00:42:50,507 --> 00:42:52,127
and the occipital lobes.
1037
00:42:52,127 --> 00:42:53,490
And the precision is such
1038
00:42:53,490 --> 00:42:55,730
that we're able to observe smaller zones,
1039
00:42:55,730 --> 00:42:57,530
the different convolutions
1040
00:42:57,530 --> 00:42:58,780
and the anatomical zones
1041
00:42:58,780 --> 00:43:00,500
which are of a functional interest.
1042
00:43:00,500 --> 00:43:03,050
Here we can see the
extension of Broca's area,
1043
00:43:03,050 --> 00:43:06,014
which is a zone linked to
language production, for example.
1044
00:43:06,014 --> 00:43:09,870
(Neanderthals speaking
in foreign language)
1045
00:43:09,870 --> 00:43:11,010
- [Narrator] The third piece of evidence
1046
00:43:11,010 --> 00:43:12,633
comes to us via genetics.
1047
00:43:14,438 --> 00:43:16,900
In the Max Planck laboratories in Leipzig,
1048
00:43:16,900 --> 00:43:19,740
scientists have identified the FOXP2 gene
1049
00:43:19,740 --> 00:43:21,163
in Neanderthal DNA.
1050
00:43:22,070 --> 00:43:23,440
This gene is fundamental
1051
00:43:23,440 --> 00:43:25,849
in the development of language in humans.
1052
00:43:25,849 --> 00:43:27,800
(electronic beeping)
1053
00:43:27,800 --> 00:43:29,530
So, Neanderthals could talk.
1054
00:43:34,804 --> 00:43:37,980
(Neanderthal speaking in foreign language)
1055
00:43:37,980 --> 00:43:39,650
Thanks to the power of words,
1056
00:43:39,650 --> 00:43:41,810
Neanderthals were able to
transmit their know-how
1057
00:43:41,810 --> 00:43:43,700
to future generations,
1058
00:43:43,700 --> 00:43:46,237
enabling their continued existence.
1059
00:43:46,237 --> 00:43:51,237
(Neanderthals speaking
in foreign language)
1060
00:43:52,451 --> 00:43:55,570
(Neanderthals laughing)
1061
00:43:55,570 --> 00:43:58,170
So if there's no material
evidence in their daily life
1062
00:43:58,170 --> 00:44:00,453
which suggests the cause
of their extinction,
1063
00:44:01,490 --> 00:44:02,380
could it have been to do
1064
00:44:02,380 --> 00:44:04,920
with their relationship with others?
1065
00:44:04,920 --> 00:44:07,010
What can the fossils
tell us about the ties
1066
00:44:07,010 --> 00:44:09,370
which bound the members
of the tribe to each other
1067
00:44:09,370 --> 00:44:10,623
up until death?
1068
00:44:10,623 --> 00:44:13,450
(suspenseful music)
1069
00:44:13,450 --> 00:44:16,033
(wind rushing)
1070
00:44:20,170 --> 00:44:22,580
Living up to the age of
30 was a huge challenge
1071
00:44:22,580 --> 00:44:24,223
for these prehistoric humans.
1072
00:44:25,490 --> 00:44:27,323
Life was closely linked to death.
1073
00:44:28,160 --> 00:44:29,690
Were they afraid of it?
1074
00:44:29,690 --> 00:44:31,310
Did they see it as inevitable
1075
00:44:31,310 --> 00:44:33,210
or just as a passage to another world?
1076
00:44:38,370 --> 00:44:40,890
In Siberia, a team of
Russian archeologists
1077
00:44:40,890 --> 00:44:42,330
from the Institute of Novosibirsk,
1078
00:44:42,330 --> 00:44:46,610
led by Professors Kseniya
Kolobova and Bence Viola,
1079
00:44:46,610 --> 00:44:48,723
have been carrying out digs since 2010.
1080
00:44:52,749 --> 00:44:54,778
(researchers speaking in foreign language)
1081
00:44:54,778 --> 00:44:56,570
(water splashing)
1082
00:44:56,570 --> 00:44:58,100
In the Chargyskaya Cave,
1083
00:44:58,100 --> 00:45:00,180
not far from the Altai Mountains,
1084
00:45:00,180 --> 00:45:03,130
the scientists have made
an extraordinary discovery,
1085
00:45:03,130 --> 00:45:05,510
a first in this part of the world:
1086
00:45:05,510 --> 00:45:08,003
more than 18 Neanderthal bone remains.
1087
00:45:10,166 --> 00:45:10,999
(speaking in foreign language)
1088
00:45:10,999 --> 00:45:13,360
- [Translator] We found a
complete Neanderthal living space
1089
00:45:13,360 --> 00:45:15,140
in the Chargyskaya Cave,
1090
00:45:15,140 --> 00:45:17,683
where they'd left evidence
of their daily lives.
1091
00:45:19,060 --> 00:45:21,773
They hunted, carved
stones, and made fires.
1092
00:45:23,800 --> 00:45:25,140
The cave is not very big,
1093
00:45:25,140 --> 00:45:27,893
and there were about 10
to 15 members in the clan.
1094
00:45:29,780 --> 00:45:32,331
(suspenseful music)
1095
00:45:32,331 --> 00:45:33,380
(researchers chattering)
1096
00:45:33,380 --> 00:45:35,460
- [Narrator] Some of the bone
remains were found together
1097
00:45:35,460 --> 00:45:37,583
in the same spot at the cave's entrance.
1098
00:45:41,438 --> 00:45:42,271
(speaking in foreign language)
1099
00:45:42,271 --> 00:45:43,540
- [Translator] A vast
majority of these bones
1100
00:45:43,540 --> 00:45:45,300
came from the same individual.
1101
00:45:45,300 --> 00:45:46,930
For example, there was a right arm
1102
00:45:46,930 --> 00:45:49,370
with the shoulder blade,
collarbone, humerus,
1103
00:45:49,370 --> 00:45:50,870
ulna, and radius.
1104
00:45:50,870 --> 00:45:53,923
It's almost certainly an
intentional anthropogenic deposit.
1105
00:45:57,280 --> 00:45:58,900
- [Narrator] The arm is in its entirety,
1106
00:45:58,900 --> 00:46:01,143
and bears no traces of animal bites,
1107
00:46:01,980 --> 00:46:04,480
so these are not the remains
of a predator's meal.
1108
00:46:05,760 --> 00:46:07,553
These bones were buried in a tomb.
1109
00:46:08,960 --> 00:46:10,500
This was a clan burial
1110
00:46:10,500 --> 00:46:12,963
from as far back as 50,000 years ago.
1111
00:46:14,130 --> 00:46:16,130
However, nothing here indicated
1112
00:46:16,130 --> 00:46:18,230
that there had been any particular ritual.
1113
00:46:21,750 --> 00:46:23,363
Neanderthals buried their dead.
1114
00:46:25,060 --> 00:46:26,820
The first Neanderthal tomb in France
1115
00:46:26,820 --> 00:46:28,600
was discovered at La Chapelle-aux-Saints,
1116
00:46:28,600 --> 00:46:30,702
near to Brive-la-Gaillarde
in the southwest.
1117
00:46:30,702 --> 00:46:33,369
(ominous music)
1118
00:46:34,750 --> 00:46:36,110
Sheltered under the rocks,
1119
00:46:36,110 --> 00:46:38,640
the deceased was buried
in the fetal position
1120
00:46:38,640 --> 00:46:40,140
with the head facing the east.
1121
00:46:41,150 --> 00:46:43,233
In other words, towards the rising sun.
1122
00:46:47,631 --> 00:46:50,260
(Neanderthals chanting quietly)
1123
00:46:50,260 --> 00:46:52,510
Other tombs have been
discovered in the Middle East,
1124
00:46:52,510 --> 00:46:54,450
showing more evidence
of how much attention
1125
00:46:54,450 --> 00:46:56,050
Neanderthals paid to their dead.
1126
00:46:58,610 --> 00:47:01,390
The corpse was often
decorated with objects,
1127
00:47:01,390 --> 00:47:03,340
placed there like offerings,
1128
00:47:03,340 --> 00:47:06,010
plants, animal bones,
1129
00:47:06,010 --> 00:47:07,670
carved stones,
1130
00:47:07,670 --> 00:47:09,773
traces of ochre or even shells,
1131
00:47:13,850 --> 00:47:15,973
proof that Neanderthals were empathetic.
1132
00:47:16,860 --> 00:47:19,580
They had an ability to
imagine another world,
1133
00:47:19,580 --> 00:47:22,198
helping the dead to the life beyond.
1134
00:47:22,198 --> 00:47:24,512
(Neanderthal speaking in foreign language)
1135
00:47:24,512 --> 00:47:27,240
(electronic beeping)
1136
00:47:27,240 --> 00:47:28,870
Numerous Neanderthal skulls
1137
00:47:28,870 --> 00:47:31,370
dating back around 120,000 years
1138
00:47:31,370 --> 00:47:33,460
were excavated at a remarkable site
1139
00:47:33,460 --> 00:47:35,053
at Krapina in Croatia.
1140
00:47:36,540 --> 00:47:39,340
At the Museum of Natural
Science in Zagreb,
1141
00:47:39,340 --> 00:47:41,190
Jakov Radovcic
1142
00:47:41,190 --> 00:47:43,413
analyzed the various marks on the bones.
1143
00:47:45,090 --> 00:47:46,450
The carefully drawn striations
1144
00:47:46,450 --> 00:47:48,773
were symbols of a complex funereal rite.
1145
00:47:51,177 --> 00:47:52,010
(speaking in foreign language)
1146
00:47:52,010 --> 00:47:52,843
- [Translator] We observed several types
1147
00:47:52,843 --> 00:47:55,115
of cranial striations in Krapina.
1148
00:47:55,115 --> 00:47:56,350
We can be absolutely certain
1149
00:47:56,350 --> 00:47:58,700
that some of them are of human origin.
1150
00:47:58,700 --> 00:48:00,450
I believe that these cranial striations
1151
00:48:00,450 --> 00:48:01,670
were created intentionally
1152
00:48:01,670 --> 00:48:03,163
and have a symbolic value.
1153
00:48:05,920 --> 00:48:07,800
- [Narrator] These marks
had a geometrical shape
1154
00:48:07,800 --> 00:48:10,050
and they were meticulously
drawn on the brow
1155
00:48:10,050 --> 00:48:11,283
and on the head itself.
1156
00:48:13,860 --> 00:48:16,310
Jakov Radovcic believes
that they were signs
1157
00:48:16,310 --> 00:48:18,150
of a very special ritual
1158
00:48:18,150 --> 00:48:19,853
that is often called a skull cult.
1159
00:48:21,720 --> 00:48:23,320
The cranial bone was broken
1160
00:48:23,320 --> 00:48:25,080
to enable the brain to be removed
1161
00:48:25,080 --> 00:48:27,398
and most likely, eaten.
1162
00:48:27,398 --> 00:48:29,486
(speaking in foreign language)
1163
00:48:29,486 --> 00:48:31,430
- [Translator] The striations
almost certainly came about
1164
00:48:31,430 --> 00:48:33,723
as a result of cannibalistic behavior,
1165
00:48:36,380 --> 00:48:38,150
probably as a ritual,
1166
00:48:38,150 --> 00:48:39,770
asserting the particular relationship
1167
00:48:39,770 --> 00:48:41,670
between the tribe and the dead person.
1168
00:48:44,710 --> 00:48:47,060
- [Narrator] So it was
a cannibalistic funeral.
1169
00:48:57,910 --> 00:49:00,793
The Krapina fossils are
not an isolated case.
1170
00:49:01,760 --> 00:49:03,070
Other signs of cannibalism
1171
00:49:03,070 --> 00:49:04,883
have been found on other dig sites.
1172
00:49:11,058 --> 00:49:12,730
(footsteps tapping)
1173
00:49:12,730 --> 00:49:15,710
At the Belgian Royal
Institute of Natural Sciences,
1174
00:49:15,710 --> 00:49:18,160
Helene Rougier has been examining fossils
1175
00:49:18,160 --> 00:49:19,300
found in the Goyet Caves
1176
00:49:19,300 --> 00:49:20,850
at the end of the 19th century.
1177
00:49:22,240 --> 00:49:24,963
She, too, observed similar
traces on the bone remains.
1178
00:49:25,799 --> 00:49:26,632
(speaking in foreign language)
1179
00:49:26,632 --> 00:49:27,465
- [Translator] In the caves,
1180
00:49:27,465 --> 00:49:29,760
we found a whole collection
of Neanderthal bones
1181
00:49:29,760 --> 00:49:31,550
from the rather piecemeal remains
1182
00:49:31,550 --> 00:49:33,377
of at least six individuals.
1183
00:49:33,377 --> 00:49:35,640
And the reason for this fragmentation
1184
00:49:35,640 --> 00:49:37,830
was that the bones had been broken
1185
00:49:37,830 --> 00:49:40,143
so that the marrow could be extracted.
1186
00:49:41,626 --> 00:49:42,770
This was after the muscles
1187
00:49:42,770 --> 00:49:44,120
and the skin had been removed,
1188
00:49:44,120 --> 00:49:46,133
and the body, completely torn apart.
1189
00:49:47,910 --> 00:49:48,950
- [Narrator] These marks on the bones
1190
00:49:48,950 --> 00:49:50,290
are a sign that the Neanderthal
1191
00:49:50,290 --> 00:49:52,003
deliberately cut away the skin.
1192
00:49:53,060 --> 00:49:55,470
Here, we can see that
the bone had been broken
1193
00:49:55,470 --> 00:49:57,762
even though the person was already dead.
1194
00:49:57,762 --> 00:50:00,262
(eerie music)
1195
00:50:02,080 --> 00:50:03,700
And so it wasn't the burying of the bones
1196
00:50:03,700 --> 00:50:05,050
which caused them to break.
1197
00:50:06,070 --> 00:50:08,060
There are very visible impact marks
1198
00:50:08,060 --> 00:50:09,840
made by a small rock.
1199
00:50:09,840 --> 00:50:13,113
These signs are definite proof
of cannibalistic practices.
1200
00:50:16,954 --> 00:50:17,787
(speaking in foreign language)
1201
00:50:17,787 --> 00:50:18,810
- [Translator] We found
the same occurrences
1202
00:50:18,810 --> 00:50:20,230
on Neanderthal bones
1203
00:50:20,230 --> 00:50:22,920
as we found on reindeer and horses.
1204
00:50:22,920 --> 00:50:26,940
And the marks were situated
in exactly the same places
1205
00:50:26,940 --> 00:50:29,420
and produced in the same
way on the Neanderthals
1206
00:50:29,420 --> 00:50:30,543
as on the animals.
1207
00:50:32,910 --> 00:50:36,080
- [Narrator] Was this cannibalism
for food or for ritual?
1208
00:50:36,080 --> 00:50:37,140
For the Goyet finds,
1209
00:50:37,140 --> 00:50:39,540
the scientists cannot
answer that question,
1210
00:50:39,540 --> 00:50:41,940
but it's clear that
cannibalistic practices
1211
00:50:41,940 --> 00:50:43,523
have dangers for human health.
1212
00:50:44,530 --> 00:50:46,410
So could these practices
have been the cause
1213
00:50:46,410 --> 00:50:49,300
of the extinction of Neanderthals?
1214
00:50:49,300 --> 00:50:50,960
In the middle of the 20th century,
1215
00:50:50,960 --> 00:50:52,340
researchers were able to prove
1216
00:50:52,340 --> 00:50:54,490
that populations who practice cannibalism
1217
00:50:54,490 --> 00:50:55,543
could be wiped out.
1218
00:50:56,890 --> 00:50:59,240
A terrifying disease called kuru
1219
00:50:59,240 --> 00:51:01,790
have killed off certain
tribes in Papua New Guinea.
1220
00:51:02,680 --> 00:51:04,120
A protein called prion
1221
00:51:04,120 --> 00:51:06,253
is responsible for the fatal disease.
1222
00:51:07,370 --> 00:51:08,880
This protein is found in the brain
1223
00:51:08,880 --> 00:51:10,190
and in the bone marrow
1224
00:51:10,190 --> 00:51:13,220
and is transmitted through
eating those parts of the body.
1225
00:51:13,220 --> 00:51:14,780
- [Translator] We found
a great number of traces
1226
00:51:14,780 --> 00:51:17,340
of repeated cannibalism in certain sites,
1227
00:51:17,340 --> 00:51:18,940
so we wondered if they'd all developed
1228
00:51:18,940 --> 00:51:21,700
the prion-type illness
since they were cannibals,
1229
00:51:21,700 --> 00:51:24,710
especially as the protein
is difficult to get rid of.
1230
00:51:24,710 --> 00:51:26,390
In other words, if they used a tool
1231
00:51:26,390 --> 00:51:28,120
to cut out a diseased brain
1232
00:51:28,120 --> 00:51:29,410
and then used the same tool
1233
00:51:29,410 --> 00:51:30,970
to cut up meat afterwards,
1234
00:51:30,970 --> 00:51:34,602
then the disease could easily
spread to someone else.
1235
00:51:34,602 --> 00:51:35,960
(ominous music)
1236
00:51:35,960 --> 00:51:37,490
- [Narrator] Once the
prion has been absorbed
1237
00:51:37,490 --> 00:51:38,323
into the body,
1238
00:51:38,323 --> 00:51:40,360
it attacks and destroys
the nervous system,
1239
00:51:40,360 --> 00:51:41,313
causing death.
1240
00:51:43,130 --> 00:51:45,363
This might have been
how Neanderthals died.
1241
00:51:47,297 --> 00:51:48,130
(speaking in foreign language)
1242
00:51:48,130 --> 00:51:48,963
- [Translator] The most important sites
1243
00:51:48,963 --> 00:51:50,410
where cannibalism has been observed
1244
00:51:50,410 --> 00:51:53,140
date back to between
100 and 800,000 years,
1245
00:51:53,140 --> 00:51:55,297
so, well before
Neanderthals became extinct.
1246
00:51:55,297 --> 00:51:57,050
And the other problem is that Neanderthals
1247
00:51:57,050 --> 00:51:58,560
were spread out over a huge area
1248
00:51:58,560 --> 00:52:00,530
of Europe and parts of Eurasia.
1249
00:52:00,530 --> 00:52:03,060
So we're talking about
very disparate populations
1250
00:52:03,060 --> 00:52:04,140
with different cultures.
1251
00:52:04,140 --> 00:52:05,740
It's probably a bit of an exaggeration
1252
00:52:05,740 --> 00:52:08,033
to say that all
Neanderthals were cannibals.
1253
00:52:10,010 --> 00:52:11,900
- [Narrator] So, death by
prion was not the cause
1254
00:52:11,900 --> 00:52:14,290
of the extinction of Neanderthals.
1255
00:52:14,290 --> 00:52:17,200
It would have meant that
every tribe was cannibalistic.
1256
00:52:17,200 --> 00:52:19,620
But there's no
archeological proof of this.
1257
00:52:19,620 --> 00:52:22,203
(serene music)
1258
00:52:23,970 --> 00:52:25,700
So if the Neanderthal death customs
1259
00:52:25,700 --> 00:52:28,370
were not responsible
for their disappearance,
1260
00:52:28,370 --> 00:52:31,270
perhaps we need to be looking
at the birth side of things.
1261
00:52:32,580 --> 00:52:33,870
Were there enough Neanderthals
1262
00:52:33,870 --> 00:52:35,642
to guarantee the future of the species?
1263
00:52:35,642 --> 00:52:38,740
(Neanderthals yelling)
1264
00:52:38,740 --> 00:52:40,270
Have their fossil remains
1265
00:52:40,270 --> 00:52:42,576
kept any vestiges of their birth?
1266
00:52:42,576 --> 00:52:46,172
(Neanderthal speaking in foreign language)
1267
00:52:46,172 --> 00:52:49,505
(Neanderthal screaming)
1268
00:52:51,857 --> 00:52:52,690
(baby crying)
1269
00:52:52,690 --> 00:52:53,560
Did a low birth rate
1270
00:52:53,560 --> 00:52:56,799
bring about the extinction
of the Neanderthal people?
1271
00:52:56,799 --> 00:52:59,046
(Neanderthals speaking
in foreign language)
1272
00:52:59,046 --> 00:53:01,546
(baby crying)
1273
00:53:02,530 --> 00:53:05,863
(Neanderthals chanting)
1274
00:53:12,740 --> 00:53:15,040
In the genetic laboratories at Max Planck,
1275
00:53:15,040 --> 00:53:17,240
researchers have managed
to compare the DNA
1276
00:53:17,240 --> 00:53:19,023
of several Neanderthal fossils.
1277
00:53:20,100 --> 00:53:22,560
Basing their results on
the number of fossils found
1278
00:53:22,560 --> 00:53:24,610
and their genetic similarities,
1279
00:53:24,610 --> 00:53:26,300
these paleodemographers
1280
00:53:26,300 --> 00:53:27,950
are able to estimate the size
1281
00:53:27,950 --> 00:53:29,623
of the Neanderthal population.
1282
00:53:31,140 --> 00:53:34,550
- The measure that we usually obtain
1283
00:53:34,550 --> 00:53:37,040
from the analysis of sequence data
1284
00:53:37,040 --> 00:53:39,920
is what we call the
effective population size.
1285
00:53:39,920 --> 00:53:43,330
And Neanderthals usually go
1286
00:53:43,330 --> 00:53:45,700
in the low thousands
1287
00:53:45,700 --> 00:53:49,793
or the low ten-thousands.
1288
00:53:50,810 --> 00:53:52,400
- [Narrator] The effective population size
1289
00:53:52,400 --> 00:53:55,293
helps to measure the genetic
diversity of Neanderthals.
1290
00:53:56,910 --> 00:53:59,710
It seems it varied
between 1,000 and 10,000
1291
00:53:59,710 --> 00:54:02,130
depending on the period studied.
1292
00:54:02,130 --> 00:54:04,410
These variations in genetic diversity
1293
00:54:04,410 --> 00:54:06,310
that can be detected in the DNA
1294
00:54:06,310 --> 00:54:09,114
correspond exactly to the Earth's
different climate periods.
1295
00:54:09,114 --> 00:54:12,114
(suspenseful music)
1296
00:54:18,320 --> 00:54:20,920
The tests show that the
population of Neanderthals
1297
00:54:20,920 --> 00:54:22,920
had a very low genetic diversity
1298
00:54:22,920 --> 00:54:24,313
compared to other species.
1299
00:54:25,850 --> 00:54:26,710
In other words,
1300
00:54:26,710 --> 00:54:29,463
the DNA in each Neanderthal
is very similar.
1301
00:54:30,670 --> 00:54:32,630
But while analyzing this DNA,
1302
00:54:32,630 --> 00:54:34,933
the scientists came across something else.
1303
00:54:36,250 --> 00:54:40,780
- So what we infer from
the Neanderthal's genomes
1304
00:54:40,780 --> 00:54:45,550
is a long-term decrease
in their population.
1305
00:54:45,550 --> 00:54:46,660
- [Narrator] So genetic research
1306
00:54:46,660 --> 00:54:48,410
definitely confirms the theory
1307
00:54:48,410 --> 00:54:49,243
that there was a drop
1308
00:54:49,243 --> 00:54:51,910
in the Neanderthal population over time.
1309
00:54:51,910 --> 00:54:53,810
But the reasons for this still remain.
1310
00:54:55,050 --> 00:54:56,930
In the Denisova Cave in Siberia,
1311
00:54:56,930 --> 00:54:58,860
more clues hidden in the DNA
1312
00:54:58,860 --> 00:55:01,283
of the extinct species were uncovered.
1313
00:55:02,178 --> 00:55:03,011
(speaking in foreign language)
1314
00:55:03,011 --> 00:55:04,210
- [Translator] What's
interesting at Denisova
1315
00:55:04,210 --> 00:55:06,990
is that there was a very
small group for a long time,
1316
00:55:06,990 --> 00:55:09,070
but also, there was an element inbreeding,
1317
00:55:09,070 --> 00:55:11,250
especially in the last generation.
1318
00:55:11,250 --> 00:55:13,380
We can see that the parents
of these individuals
1319
00:55:13,380 --> 00:55:14,890
are very close genetically.
1320
00:55:14,890 --> 00:55:17,390
They may have been
grandparents and grandchildren
1321
00:55:17,390 --> 00:55:19,650
or an uncle and a niece.
1322
00:55:19,650 --> 00:55:21,000
- [Narrator] This consanguinity
1323
00:55:21,000 --> 00:55:23,490
is an important piece of information.
1324
00:55:23,490 --> 00:55:25,560
Since they couldn't
find any other partners,
1325
00:55:25,560 --> 00:55:28,330
Neanderthals were forced to
mate within their own clans,
1326
00:55:28,330 --> 00:55:29,463
their own families.
1327
00:55:32,175 --> 00:55:33,680
(Neanderthal groaning)
1328
00:55:33,680 --> 00:55:35,170
Without an injection of genes
1329
00:55:35,170 --> 00:55:36,269
from outside of the tribe,
1330
00:55:36,269 --> 00:55:38,860
is this how archaic humans sowed the seeds
1331
00:55:38,860 --> 00:55:39,760
of their downfall?
1332
00:55:40,970 --> 00:55:43,640
Did the very low genetic
diversity of Neanderthals
1333
00:55:43,640 --> 00:55:46,310
and the inbreeding of certain individuals
1334
00:55:46,310 --> 00:55:48,650
bring about the degeneration
of the population,
1335
00:55:48,650 --> 00:55:50,083
and thus, its extinction?
1336
00:55:52,740 --> 00:55:54,790
- This reveals diversity
1337
00:55:54,790 --> 00:55:56,480
may, in some populations,
1338
00:55:56,480 --> 00:55:58,770
be linked to inbreeding,
1339
00:55:58,770 --> 00:56:03,280
which further decreases the diversity
1340
00:56:03,280 --> 00:56:06,580
and increases the probability
1341
00:56:06,580 --> 00:56:11,580
of recessive deleterious
variation expressing themselves.
1342
00:56:11,680 --> 00:56:14,583
And this may lead to a
number of genetic disorders.
1343
00:56:16,300 --> 00:56:17,310
- [Narrator] Genetic disorders
1344
00:56:17,310 --> 00:56:18,930
caused by malfunctioning genes
1345
00:56:18,930 --> 00:56:21,222
produce negative effects on the organism.
1346
00:56:21,222 --> 00:56:23,420
(electronic beeping)
1347
00:56:23,420 --> 00:56:25,433
So what risks were these people running?
1348
00:56:26,330 --> 00:56:28,590
- Populations with low diversity
1349
00:56:28,590 --> 00:56:32,620
have much more difficulty to face
1350
00:56:32,620 --> 00:56:34,830
environmental challenges
1351
00:56:34,830 --> 00:56:36,090
or genetic challenges
1352
00:56:36,090 --> 00:56:37,800
that may come from,
1353
00:56:37,800 --> 00:56:39,940
for example, infection.
1354
00:56:39,940 --> 00:56:41,670
- [Narrator] Infections
linked to illnesses
1355
00:56:41,670 --> 00:56:42,970
for which these humans
1356
00:56:42,970 --> 00:56:45,570
would not have developed
natural defense mechanisms.
1357
00:56:47,330 --> 00:56:50,300
Genetics can go even further
to explain the situation
1358
00:56:50,300 --> 00:56:53,133
of the Neanderthal populations
of 40,000 years ago.
1359
00:56:55,410 --> 00:56:57,710
Over time, there were
fewer and fewer of them.
1360
00:56:59,200 --> 00:57:01,083
Their genetic diversity declined.
1361
00:57:03,400 --> 00:57:05,463
Cases of inbreeding have been discovered.
1362
00:57:07,100 --> 00:57:09,230
Neanderthals found
themselves less well-equipped
1363
00:57:09,230 --> 00:57:10,450
to fight diseases
1364
00:57:10,450 --> 00:57:11,870
as well as the constant changes
1365
00:57:11,870 --> 00:57:13,704
dictated by their nomadic way of life.
1366
00:57:13,704 --> 00:57:16,780
(Neanderthals groaning)
1367
00:57:16,780 --> 00:57:19,370
Neanderthals, the victims
at our crime scene,
1368
00:57:19,370 --> 00:57:21,640
demonstrated a weakness in their DNA
1369
00:57:21,640 --> 00:57:23,285
in the very heart of their cells.
1370
00:57:23,285 --> 00:57:25,280
(dramatic music)
1371
00:57:25,280 --> 00:57:28,170
To find out if this is a
clue to their extinction,
1372
00:57:28,170 --> 00:57:29,480
we need to look more carefully
1373
00:57:29,480 --> 00:57:31,163
at their relationship to others.
1374
00:57:34,630 --> 00:57:37,690
Did Neanderthals make the
wrong type of friends?
1375
00:57:37,690 --> 00:57:40,420
Were they wiped out
during tribal conflicts?
1376
00:57:40,420 --> 00:57:42,200
(punches thudding)
(Neanderthals grunting)
1377
00:57:42,200 --> 00:57:44,080
Or did they fall victim to a disease
1378
00:57:44,080 --> 00:57:45,493
carried by a third party?
1379
00:57:50,379 --> 00:57:52,823
(suspenseful music)
1380
00:57:52,823 --> 00:57:55,906
(electronic beeping)
1381
00:58:04,980 --> 00:58:07,150
In the Asturian hills in Northern Spain,
1382
00:58:07,150 --> 00:58:09,180
at the end of a long forest path,
1383
00:58:09,180 --> 00:58:11,623
is a small passage
leading deep underground.
1384
00:58:19,079 --> 00:58:21,996
(foliage rustling)
1385
00:58:27,450 --> 00:58:28,740
In the Sidron Cave,
1386
00:58:28,740 --> 00:58:32,650
Professors Marco de la
Rasilla and Antonio Rosas
1387
00:58:32,650 --> 00:58:34,913
brought to light an
archeological treasure.
1388
00:58:38,890 --> 00:58:40,790
At the bottom of this deep chamber,
1389
00:58:40,790 --> 00:58:42,230
400 meters from the entrance
1390
00:58:42,230 --> 00:58:44,010
where a small river flows,
1391
00:58:44,010 --> 00:58:45,460
these researchers discovered
1392
00:58:45,460 --> 00:58:47,760
what looked like a mass
grave of Neanderthals.
1393
00:58:48,689 --> 00:58:51,856
(Neanderthal panting)
1394
00:59:04,050 --> 00:59:07,123
In all, nearly 2,600 bones were excavated.
1395
00:59:10,010 --> 00:59:12,040
What could have happened?
1396
00:59:12,040 --> 00:59:14,283
Is this a proof of mass extermination?
1397
00:59:16,010 --> 00:59:17,360
- El Sidron assemblage
1398
00:59:17,360 --> 00:59:20,830
is the largest Neanderthal bone assemblage
1399
00:59:20,830 --> 00:59:23,380
ever found in the Iberian Peninsula.
1400
00:59:23,380 --> 00:59:27,540
And we have identified a minimum
number of 13 individuals.
1401
00:59:27,540 --> 00:59:29,370
Seven adults,
1402
00:59:29,370 --> 00:59:31,610
three adolescents,
1403
00:59:31,610 --> 00:59:34,010
two juveniles, and one infant.
1404
00:59:34,010 --> 00:59:37,800
(Neanderthal crying)
1405
00:59:37,800 --> 00:59:42,717
(Neanderthal speaking in foreign language)
1406
00:59:49,800 --> 00:59:51,000
- [Narrator] At the Sidron site,
1407
00:59:51,000 --> 00:59:53,500
what is both strange and surprising
1408
00:59:53,500 --> 00:59:56,020
is that there were practically
no animal remains found
1409
00:59:56,020 --> 00:59:57,820
alongside those of the Neanderthals.
1410
01:00:01,450 --> 01:00:04,480
- Usually, the assemblages
come from different period.
1411
01:00:04,480 --> 01:00:05,800
In this case,
1412
01:00:05,800 --> 01:00:08,403
because of the special
condition of the site,
1413
01:00:08,403 --> 01:00:10,490
we are in front of a single
1414
01:00:11,510 --> 01:00:14,400
biological and social Neanderthal group.
1415
01:00:14,400 --> 01:00:17,270
This is quite special
for this kind of site,
1416
01:00:17,270 --> 01:00:20,493
and it makes the Sidron
a very particular place.
1417
01:00:22,660 --> 01:00:24,080
- [Narrator] The DNA found in the remains
1418
01:00:24,080 --> 01:00:25,520
of these 13 Neanderthals
1419
01:00:25,520 --> 01:00:29,553
confirm their biological relationship.
1420
01:00:33,560 --> 01:00:34,393
These men, women, and children
1421
01:00:34,393 --> 01:00:36,593
all belonged to the same family.
1422
01:00:43,330 --> 01:00:44,480
Their bones were crushed
1423
01:00:44,480 --> 01:00:46,743
and their skulls, broken
into small pieces.
1424
01:00:48,510 --> 01:00:51,023
How can the sad fate of
this tribe be explained?
1425
01:00:53,062 --> 01:00:55,720
(suspenseful music)
(footsteps tapping)
1426
01:00:55,720 --> 01:00:57,190
At the University of Madrid,
1427
01:00:57,190 --> 01:01:00,530
Antonio Rosas analyzed these remains.
1428
01:01:00,530 --> 01:01:01,853
What did the results show?
1429
01:01:03,270 --> 01:01:06,483
What happened to the Sidron
tribe of 13 Neanderthals?
1430
01:01:07,690 --> 01:01:10,480
- We have found different evidences
1431
01:01:10,480 --> 01:01:13,350
to support the hypothesis of cannibalism.
1432
01:01:13,350 --> 01:01:17,500
The clearest are what we call cut marks.
1433
01:01:17,500 --> 01:01:20,330
We found marks of cannibalism in adults
1434
01:01:20,330 --> 01:01:22,233
and also in immature individuals.
1435
01:01:23,590 --> 01:01:25,570
- [Narrator] Cannibalism again.
1436
01:01:25,570 --> 01:01:27,870
The bones had been broken
open for the marrow.
1437
01:01:32,390 --> 01:01:34,180
Was this Neanderthal clan devoured
1438
01:01:34,180 --> 01:01:35,793
by bloodthirsty warriors?
1439
01:01:37,430 --> 01:01:39,973
The carbon dating was
to provide some answers.
1440
01:01:41,400 --> 01:01:44,530
- We have a site that similar methods
1441
01:01:44,530 --> 01:01:46,650
for dating the assemblage,
1442
01:01:46,650 --> 01:01:49,820
actually, we would have
very consistent dating.
1443
01:01:49,820 --> 01:01:53,493
And the age is 49,000 years old.
1444
01:01:54,850 --> 01:01:55,980
- [Narrator] This clan had been eaten
1445
01:01:55,980 --> 01:01:59,680
49,000 years ago by other Neanderthals.
1446
01:01:59,680 --> 01:02:02,680
(suspenseful music)
1447
01:02:04,820 --> 01:02:06,700
After the fatal feeding frenzy,
1448
01:02:06,700 --> 01:02:07,663
a storm broke.
1449
01:02:09,920 --> 01:02:11,800
(birds chirping)
1450
01:02:11,800 --> 01:02:13,680
The river that runs through the rocks
1451
01:02:13,680 --> 01:02:16,410
carried away the remains
of this cannibalistic feast
1452
01:02:16,410 --> 01:02:18,100
into the depths of the cave,
1453
01:02:18,100 --> 01:02:20,863
which is where the fossils of
this tribe were discovered.
1454
01:02:23,560 --> 01:02:26,893
Were the Sidron 13 victims
of intertribal conflict?
1455
01:02:28,120 --> 01:02:31,070
Were they martyrs of a sacrificial rite
1456
01:02:31,070 --> 01:02:33,743
or a meal for another
famine-affected clan?
1457
01:02:34,800 --> 01:02:37,610
If Antonio Rosas can't
come up with the answers,
1458
01:02:37,610 --> 01:02:39,690
there are similar traces
of violence elsewhere
1459
01:02:39,690 --> 01:02:41,723
which could provide some explanations.
1460
01:02:43,677 --> 01:02:46,314
(birds chirping)
(water rushing)
1461
01:02:46,314 --> 01:02:48,120
(water splashing)
1462
01:02:48,120 --> 01:02:51,121
In 1979, at Saint-Cesaire
in Charente-Maritime
1463
01:02:51,121 --> 01:02:52,660
in the west of France,
1464
01:02:52,660 --> 01:02:54,740
the skull of a young Neanderthal female,
1465
01:02:54,740 --> 01:02:56,050
nicknamed Pierrette,
1466
01:02:56,050 --> 01:02:57,933
was found with a large gash on it.
1467
01:03:00,000 --> 01:03:00,833
In the Middle East,
1468
01:03:00,833 --> 01:03:01,970
other fossils have been found
1469
01:03:01,970 --> 01:03:04,602
with serious injuries
to the head and limbs.
1470
01:03:04,602 --> 01:03:08,018
(birds chirping)
1471
01:03:08,018 --> 01:03:09,160
(insects chirping)
1472
01:03:09,160 --> 01:03:10,560
Are these a series of clues
1473
01:03:10,560 --> 01:03:13,123
which point to the
consequences of a bloody war?
1474
01:03:15,120 --> 01:03:16,750
Were Neanderthals perhaps victims
1475
01:03:16,750 --> 01:03:18,663
of what we call nowadays a genocide?
1476
01:03:21,570 --> 01:03:22,770
Did they come into contact
1477
01:03:22,770 --> 01:03:24,614
with another species of human?
1478
01:03:24,614 --> 01:03:26,205
(dramatic music)
1479
01:03:26,205 --> 01:03:30,205
(fighters yelling and groaning)
1480
01:03:35,800 --> 01:03:37,990
Who are these strange
humans with flat faces,
1481
01:03:37,990 --> 01:03:39,983
round heads, and elongated figures?
1482
01:03:41,450 --> 01:03:42,910
With high, rounded foreheads
1483
01:03:42,910 --> 01:03:45,113
and faces ending in pointed chins?
1484
01:03:45,113 --> 01:03:47,130
(fighters screaming)
1485
01:03:47,130 --> 01:03:49,527
With long legs holding up slender bodies?
1486
01:03:49,527 --> 01:03:53,820
(fighters screaming and grunting)
1487
01:03:53,820 --> 01:03:55,323
They are Homo sapiens.
1488
01:03:56,360 --> 01:03:57,880
So are they the prime suspects
1489
01:03:57,880 --> 01:03:59,781
in this investigation?
1490
01:03:59,781 --> 01:04:02,820
(fighters yelling and grunting)
1491
01:04:02,820 --> 01:04:05,070
And if Neanderthals came
into contact with them,
1492
01:04:05,070 --> 01:04:06,566
what's their story?
1493
01:04:06,566 --> 01:04:09,149
(wind howling)
1494
01:04:10,483 --> 01:04:11,316
(speaking in foreign language)
1495
01:04:11,316 --> 01:04:13,030
- [Translator] The versions
which most closely resemble us
1496
01:04:13,030 --> 01:04:14,190
come from Africa
1497
01:04:14,190 --> 01:04:16,560
300,000 years ago.
1498
01:04:16,560 --> 01:04:19,833
They were recently discovered
in Jebel Irhoud in Morocco.
1499
01:04:22,160 --> 01:04:24,610
- [Narrator] While
Neanderthals dominated Europe,
1500
01:04:24,610 --> 01:04:27,193
Homo sapiens conquered
huge areas of Africa,
1501
01:04:28,200 --> 01:04:29,250
from the Indian Ocean
1502
01:04:29,250 --> 01:04:31,183
all the way to the Atlantic coasts.
1503
01:04:32,020 --> 01:04:34,310
And then, 120,000 years ago,
1504
01:04:34,310 --> 01:04:35,860
a major climate event
1505
01:04:35,860 --> 01:04:38,963
forced our ancestors to seek
out new lands to inhabit.
1506
01:04:40,528 --> 01:04:41,460
(speaking in foreign language)
1507
01:04:41,460 --> 01:04:42,690
- [Translator] In the
past, there were episodes
1508
01:04:42,690 --> 01:04:45,023
called the periods of the wet Sahara.
1509
01:04:46,205 --> 01:04:48,270
Instead of the Sahara that we know today,
1510
01:04:48,270 --> 01:04:50,750
there were savannas, lakes, rivers,
1511
01:04:50,750 --> 01:04:52,830
elephants and giraffes
1512
01:04:52,830 --> 01:04:55,290
over a territory which
was as big as the U.S.A.
1513
01:04:57,860 --> 01:05:01,620
The wet Sahara period of 120,000 years ago
1514
01:05:01,620 --> 01:05:03,680
is possibly what explains the presence
1515
01:05:03,680 --> 01:05:06,060
of modern-day humans outside of Africa
1516
01:05:06,920 --> 01:05:08,620
in the zone between the Persian Gulf,
1517
01:05:08,620 --> 01:05:10,725
the Indian Ocean, and Syria.
1518
01:05:10,725 --> 01:05:12,700
(serene music)
1519
01:05:12,700 --> 01:05:14,620
- [Narrator] Homo sapiens, modern humans,
1520
01:05:14,620 --> 01:05:17,193
migrated northwards in
two different directions.
1521
01:05:18,200 --> 01:05:20,090
The first route followed the Nile Delta
1522
01:05:20,090 --> 01:05:21,400
up to Palestine,
1523
01:05:21,400 --> 01:05:23,500
and then continued into the Jordan Valley.
1524
01:05:24,700 --> 01:05:26,830
The second route took
the Bab-el-Mandeb Strait
1525
01:05:26,830 --> 01:05:28,630
towards the Arabian Peninsula
1526
01:05:28,630 --> 01:05:30,440
and up to the Levant.
1527
01:05:30,440 --> 01:05:33,480
So, Homo sapiens arrived in
the Neanderthal territory
1528
01:05:33,480 --> 01:05:35,410
and settled in rock shelters
1529
01:05:35,410 --> 01:05:38,170
such as the Skhul and
Qafzeh caves in Israel
1530
01:05:39,250 --> 01:05:40,460
For over 10,000 years,
1531
01:05:40,460 --> 01:05:42,410
modern humans were
forced to share this land
1532
01:05:42,410 --> 01:05:44,180
with prehistoric men and women
1533
01:05:44,180 --> 01:05:46,253
in the Tabun Caves in Mount Carmel.
1534
01:05:47,410 --> 01:05:49,950
How did this cohabitation work out?
1535
01:05:49,950 --> 01:05:53,050
- Anthropologists like to think in models.
1536
01:05:53,050 --> 01:05:56,690
You know, we have models to
explain what could have happened
1537
01:05:56,690 --> 01:05:59,050
when two different groups meet each other.
1538
01:05:59,050 --> 01:06:01,430
Either it's a love story,
1539
01:06:01,430 --> 01:06:03,923
it's a massacre story,
1540
01:06:05,030 --> 01:06:08,570
or one just simply give
up and move to a new area.
1541
01:06:08,570 --> 01:06:10,440
(Homo sapiens speaking
in foreign language)
1542
01:06:10,440 --> 01:06:11,910
- [Narrator] When faced with newcomers,
1543
01:06:11,910 --> 01:06:14,710
hunter-gatherers reacted in
one of three different ways.
1544
01:06:16,040 --> 01:06:18,370
The first involved brutal conflict.
1545
01:06:18,370 --> 01:06:19,620
The tribes fought each other
1546
01:06:19,620 --> 01:06:21,050
and victory went to the stronger
1547
01:06:21,050 --> 01:06:22,920
or the cleverer tribe.
1548
01:06:22,920 --> 01:06:25,050
The second reaction was flight.
1549
01:06:25,050 --> 01:06:26,550
The incumbents left their place
1550
01:06:26,550 --> 01:06:28,720
to the newly arrived strangers.
1551
01:06:28,720 --> 01:06:31,430
And lastly, there was exchange.
1552
01:06:31,430 --> 01:06:33,460
The two sets of people interacted,
1553
01:06:33,460 --> 01:06:35,080
communicated, and mixed together
1554
01:06:35,080 --> 01:06:36,923
culturally and genetically.
1555
01:06:38,510 --> 01:06:42,372
- I don't know if it was
a Romeo and Juliet story
1556
01:06:42,372 --> 01:06:44,480
in that sense,
1557
01:06:44,480 --> 01:06:46,900
but what I can tell,
1558
01:06:46,900 --> 01:06:49,130
as I said from the fact
that they were overlapping
1559
01:06:49,130 --> 01:06:51,180
for such a long period of time
1560
01:06:51,180 --> 01:06:56,000
and the fact that they
shared the same technology,
1561
01:06:56,000 --> 01:06:59,910
that they were communicating peacefully
1562
01:06:59,910 --> 01:07:01,950
with one another
1563
01:07:01,950 --> 01:07:03,877
and probably interbred.
1564
01:07:03,877 --> 01:07:05,220
(suspenseful music)
1565
01:07:05,220 --> 01:07:06,053
- [Narrator] In the Middle East,
1566
01:07:06,053 --> 01:07:08,660
Neanderthals and sapiens
exchanged their knowledge
1567
01:07:08,660 --> 01:07:09,633
and interbred.
1568
01:07:11,420 --> 01:07:13,280
These first encounters in Israel,
1569
01:07:13,280 --> 01:07:15,480
dating back 120,000 years,
1570
01:07:15,480 --> 01:07:17,280
were neither brutal nor belligerent.
1571
01:07:18,730 --> 01:07:20,340
So what could the traces of violence
1572
01:07:20,340 --> 01:07:21,863
found in France signify?
1573
01:07:23,330 --> 01:07:24,940
Are they evidence of bloody battles
1574
01:07:24,940 --> 01:07:27,430
between these two types of humans?
1575
01:07:27,430 --> 01:07:30,890
Was their history in Europe
different from elsewhere?
1576
01:07:30,890 --> 01:07:32,993
Or did their paths just simply cross?
1577
01:07:33,990 --> 01:07:34,920
To find this out,
1578
01:07:34,920 --> 01:07:36,260
we have to work out exactly
1579
01:07:36,260 --> 01:07:39,443
when Homo sapiens arrived in
Neanderthal colonies in Europe.
1580
01:07:41,820 --> 01:07:44,030
The first European sapiens
left the Middle East
1581
01:07:44,030 --> 01:07:45,290
and settled in Central Europe
1582
01:07:45,290 --> 01:07:47,163
around 45,000 years ago.
1583
01:07:49,090 --> 01:07:51,330
Later, around 42,000 years ago,
1584
01:07:51,330 --> 01:07:53,530
another wave of Homo sapiens migration
1585
01:07:53,530 --> 01:07:56,020
settled around the Mediterranean Basin
1586
01:07:56,020 --> 01:07:56,960
and began to inhabit
1587
01:07:56,960 --> 01:07:59,479
almost the whole of the European area.
1588
01:07:59,479 --> 01:08:02,229
(majestic music)
1589
01:08:09,780 --> 01:08:11,630
42,000 years ago,
1590
01:08:11,630 --> 01:08:13,810
that's the date attributed to Pierrette,
1591
01:08:13,810 --> 01:08:15,160
the Neanderthal female
1592
01:08:15,160 --> 01:08:16,420
with the fatal head wound
1593
01:08:16,420 --> 01:08:17,663
found at Saint-Cesaire.
1594
01:08:20,210 --> 01:08:21,430
This clue could well prove
1595
01:08:21,430 --> 01:08:22,360
that there'd been a clash
1596
01:08:22,360 --> 01:08:24,960
between Homo sapiens and Neanderthals.
1597
01:08:24,960 --> 01:08:25,910
Could we then infer
1598
01:08:25,910 --> 01:08:27,730
that there was already such a thing as war
1599
01:08:27,730 --> 01:08:29,071
in prehistoric times?
1600
01:08:29,071 --> 01:08:30,730
(birds chirping)
1601
01:08:30,730 --> 01:08:31,563
(speaking in foreign language)
1602
01:08:31,563 --> 01:08:33,230
- [Translator] The conditions
of life at the time,
1603
01:08:33,230 --> 01:08:34,860
the low population,
1604
01:08:34,860 --> 01:08:36,400
the vast areas of land,
1605
01:08:36,400 --> 01:08:38,030
the abundance of animals,
1606
01:08:38,030 --> 01:08:40,245
the ample amount of food and so on
1607
01:08:40,245 --> 01:08:43,670
all show that there were no
conditions that we're aware of
1608
01:08:43,670 --> 01:08:46,143
that would have provoked
violent outbreaks.
1609
01:08:47,200 --> 01:08:49,360
- [Narrator] So if there hadn't
been any warlike clashes,
1610
01:08:49,360 --> 01:08:50,790
what could the visible injury
1611
01:08:50,790 --> 01:08:52,543
on the Saint-Cesaire fossil mean?
1612
01:08:54,531 --> 01:08:55,364
(speaking in foreign language)
1613
01:08:55,364 --> 01:08:57,230
- [Translator] When there's
a mark of a blow to the head,
1614
01:08:57,230 --> 01:08:58,600
a single blow,
1615
01:08:58,600 --> 01:09:00,360
it's impossible to know if this blow
1616
01:09:00,360 --> 01:09:03,030
was delivered deliberately by someone else
1617
01:09:03,030 --> 01:09:06,003
or if it came perhaps
from a hunting accident.
1618
01:09:07,750 --> 01:09:09,170
There's also the possibility,
1619
01:09:09,170 --> 01:09:11,040
and it occurs from time to time,
1620
01:09:11,040 --> 01:09:13,220
of it being interpersonal violence.
1621
01:09:13,220 --> 01:09:14,980
But then, it's just between two people
1622
01:09:14,980 --> 01:09:16,711
and doesn't constitute a massacre.
1623
01:09:16,711 --> 01:09:18,669
(fighters yelling and grunting)
1624
01:09:18,669 --> 01:09:21,666
(punch thudding)
1625
01:09:21,666 --> 01:09:23,720
(fighters yelling)
1626
01:09:23,720 --> 01:09:24,820
- [Narrator] Sporadic clashes
1627
01:09:24,820 --> 01:09:27,859
took place between Homo
sapiens and Neanderthals,
1628
01:09:27,859 --> 01:09:29,790
but the evidence of the
first mass conflicts
1629
01:09:29,790 --> 01:09:31,620
date back to the Neolithic Era,
1630
01:09:31,620 --> 01:09:35,270
that's to say between
12,000 and 10,000 years ago,
1631
01:09:35,270 --> 01:09:37,383
which is well after Neanderthals died out.
1632
01:09:38,690 --> 01:09:39,870
Pierrette's cranial injury
1633
01:09:39,870 --> 01:09:42,270
is only a reflection of the
difficult living conditions
1634
01:09:42,270 --> 01:09:43,523
of archaic humans.
1635
01:09:46,610 --> 01:09:47,760
The genocide theory,
1636
01:09:47,760 --> 01:09:49,400
that is the deliberate annihilation
1637
01:09:49,400 --> 01:09:50,940
of Neanderthals by sapiens,
1638
01:09:50,940 --> 01:09:51,773
doesn't hold up.
1639
01:09:55,590 --> 01:09:57,020
Hunting accident,
1640
01:09:57,020 --> 01:09:59,740
fall, interpersonal violence,
1641
01:09:59,740 --> 01:10:01,430
there were many causes of injury and death
1642
01:10:01,430 --> 01:10:02,793
in prehistoric times.
1643
01:10:04,400 --> 01:10:06,050
Nevertheless, analysis has shown
1644
01:10:06,050 --> 01:10:08,363
that certain bone wounds
healed and recovered.
1645
01:10:09,390 --> 01:10:11,730
(birds chirping)
1646
01:10:11,730 --> 01:10:13,680
It would seem that these
injured men and women
1647
01:10:13,680 --> 01:10:15,003
survived and got better.
1648
01:10:15,910 --> 01:10:17,803
Through luck or know-how?
1649
01:10:19,170 --> 01:10:22,520
Did Neanderthals know how to
look after their loved ones?
1650
01:10:22,520 --> 01:10:25,450
Did they know anything
about treating their sick?
1651
01:10:25,450 --> 01:10:26,700
Or did they abandon them?
1652
01:10:27,877 --> 01:10:29,760
At the Natural History Museum in Zagreb,
1653
01:10:29,760 --> 01:10:31,170
one particular skull
1654
01:10:31,170 --> 01:10:33,340
amongst those excavated at Krapina
1655
01:10:33,340 --> 01:10:36,620
display some fascinating
signs of having healed.
1656
01:10:36,620 --> 01:10:37,970
- Neanderthals suffered from
1657
01:10:37,970 --> 01:10:40,070
a lot of various kinds of injuries.
1658
01:10:40,070 --> 01:10:42,340
That was a normal part of their life.
1659
01:10:42,340 --> 01:10:45,480
Certain injuries were very dangerous.
1660
01:10:45,480 --> 01:10:47,180
From this injury,
1661
01:10:47,180 --> 01:10:49,640
we know that the person was even in coma.
1662
01:10:49,640 --> 01:10:51,830
(Neanderthal groaning and coughing)
1663
01:10:51,830 --> 01:10:56,380
The person, even in this
really serious medical problem,
1664
01:10:56,380 --> 01:10:58,270
survived long enough
1665
01:10:58,270 --> 01:11:00,220
that we see the healing process.
1666
01:11:00,220 --> 01:11:03,380
So that means some kind
of care of the community
1667
01:11:03,380 --> 01:11:05,013
that this person was a part of.
1668
01:11:05,946 --> 01:11:07,240
- [Narrator] And there's another case
1669
01:11:07,240 --> 01:11:09,860
which the Croatian
scientists got excited about.
1670
01:11:09,860 --> 01:11:12,430
An arm amputated from below the elbow
1671
01:11:12,430 --> 01:11:13,760
showed signs that the muscles
1672
01:11:13,760 --> 01:11:15,123
hadn't actually got weaker.
1673
01:11:17,832 --> 01:11:19,120
(Neanderthal yelling)
1674
01:11:19,120 --> 01:11:20,360
The Neanderthal's arm
1675
01:11:20,360 --> 01:11:23,040
had not only healed after
this terrible injury,
1676
01:11:23,040 --> 01:11:24,913
but it had almost recovered full use.
1677
01:11:29,130 --> 01:11:30,653
It had obviously been treated.
1678
01:11:31,860 --> 01:11:34,393
But what sort of remedies
did Neanderthals use?
1679
01:11:41,080 --> 01:11:42,810
In the calculus of a decayed tooth
1680
01:11:42,810 --> 01:11:44,800
in a fossil from the Sidron site,
1681
01:11:44,800 --> 01:11:46,800
Australian researchers found traces
1682
01:11:46,800 --> 01:11:49,250
of an antibiotic fungus
1683
01:11:49,250 --> 01:11:51,650
capable of destroying bacteria,
1684
01:11:51,650 --> 01:11:53,390
as well as traces of willow bark,
1685
01:11:53,390 --> 01:11:54,940
which is a natural pain killer.
1686
01:11:56,370 --> 01:11:58,360
Neanderthals had medicinal knowledge
1687
01:11:58,360 --> 01:12:01,110
for curing the aches and
pains that they suffered from.
1688
01:12:02,110 --> 01:12:04,040
They mastered nature's secrets
(Neanderthal inhaling deeply)
1689
01:12:04,040 --> 01:12:05,727
like witch doctors.
1690
01:12:05,727 --> 01:12:10,727
(suspenseful music)
(Neanderthal exhaling deeply)
1691
01:12:11,290 --> 01:12:13,160
So perhaps Neanderthals were confronted
1692
01:12:13,160 --> 01:12:14,900
with an illness from outside,
1693
01:12:14,900 --> 01:12:17,750
and to which they weren't able
to develop any resistance.
1694
01:12:20,010 --> 01:12:22,720
A disease from another
continent, such as Africa,
1695
01:12:22,720 --> 01:12:24,820
which Homo sapiens might
have brought with them
1696
01:12:24,820 --> 01:12:26,238
when they migrated to Europe.
1697
01:12:26,238 --> 01:12:31,040
(Homo sapiens chanting)
(Neanderthal screaming)
1698
01:12:31,040 --> 01:12:32,830
Could an epidemic have been the cause
1699
01:12:32,830 --> 01:12:34,730
of the extinction of our protagonists?
1700
01:12:38,530 --> 01:12:40,690
At Oxford Brookes University in England,
1701
01:12:40,690 --> 01:12:42,320
Professor Simon Underdown
1702
01:12:42,320 --> 01:12:44,250
found traces in fossil DNA
1703
01:12:44,250 --> 01:12:47,400
of infections that Homo
sapiens could have transmitted
1704
01:12:47,400 --> 01:12:48,483
to Neanderthals.
1705
01:12:54,180 --> 01:12:55,290
Could these diseases,
1706
01:12:55,290 --> 01:12:56,590
carried by Homo sapiens,
1707
01:12:56,590 --> 01:12:58,590
explain the disappearance of our victim?
1708
01:13:02,840 --> 01:13:04,970
- Some of the examples that
we've been able to identify
1709
01:13:04,970 --> 01:13:06,150
by looking at the genetics
1710
01:13:06,150 --> 01:13:10,720
are the diseases or the bacteria
that cause stomach ulcers,
1711
01:13:10,720 --> 01:13:12,900
some rather nasty parasitic infections,
1712
01:13:12,900 --> 01:13:14,660
things like hookworm,
1713
01:13:14,660 --> 01:13:18,500
also potentially diseases
such as genital herpes,
1714
01:13:18,500 --> 01:13:20,360
and also a possibility that tuberculosis
1715
01:13:20,360 --> 01:13:22,710
might have accompanied
Homo sapiens out of Africa.
1716
01:13:22,710 --> 01:13:23,790
These would all have been things
1717
01:13:23,790 --> 01:13:26,830
that the Neanderthals would
not have encountered before.
1718
01:13:26,830 --> 01:13:29,240
- [Narrator] Could these
infections carried by Homo sapiens
1719
01:13:29,240 --> 01:13:31,332
explain the disappearance of Neanderthals?
1720
01:13:31,332 --> 01:13:33,230
(suspenseful music)
1721
01:13:33,230 --> 01:13:34,550
- One of the problems the Neanderthals
1722
01:13:34,550 --> 01:13:35,383
would have encountered
1723
01:13:35,383 --> 01:13:37,260
when these diseases started to take hold
1724
01:13:37,260 --> 01:13:40,260
is it would have had a real
impact on population size.
1725
01:13:40,260 --> 01:13:42,750
Populations have to have a
viable number of individuals
1726
01:13:42,750 --> 01:13:44,810
in order to be able to reproduce.
1727
01:13:44,810 --> 01:13:45,890
If they don't have that,
1728
01:13:45,890 --> 01:13:48,090
it starts to knock out those populations,
1729
01:13:48,090 --> 01:13:51,180
ultimately leading to either
localized extinction events
1730
01:13:51,180 --> 01:13:53,270
or a much wider process of extinction
1731
01:13:53,270 --> 01:13:54,963
on a continental scale.
1732
01:13:57,270 --> 01:13:59,789
The narrow genetic
diversity of Neanderthals
1733
01:13:59,789 --> 01:14:02,640
meant a large number of
individuals were vulnerable,
1734
01:14:02,640 --> 01:14:04,290
and the reduced size of their population
1735
01:14:04,290 --> 01:14:06,603
was a major handicap
in fighting infections.
1736
01:14:08,244 --> 01:14:12,611
(birds cawing and chirping)
1737
01:14:12,611 --> 01:14:14,790
(Neanderthal speaking foreign language)
1738
01:14:14,790 --> 01:14:17,290
Certain illnesses transmitted by sapiens,
1739
01:14:17,290 --> 01:14:18,960
such as tuberculosis,
1740
01:14:18,960 --> 01:14:21,028
clearly wreaked havoc on whole clans.
1741
01:14:21,028 --> 01:14:23,611
(somber music)
1742
01:14:26,477 --> 01:14:29,030
Unwittingly, contact with modern humans
1743
01:14:29,030 --> 01:14:31,188
meant that Neanderthal tribes
succumbed to infections.
1744
01:14:31,188 --> 01:14:32,471
(Neanderthal yelling)
1745
01:14:32,471 --> 01:14:34,793
Their population decreased
over the course of time.
1746
01:14:34,793 --> 01:14:38,126
(Neanderthal screaming)
1747
01:14:42,403 --> 01:14:45,486
(Neanderthal crying)
1748
01:14:48,740 --> 01:14:50,150
Across the whole continent,
1749
01:14:50,150 --> 01:14:52,240
the small numbers in the Neanderthal clans
1750
01:14:52,240 --> 01:14:53,790
pushed them towards extinction.
1751
01:14:55,670 --> 01:14:57,400
But even if diseases contributed
1752
01:14:57,400 --> 01:14:59,700
in making our victims more vulnerable,
1753
01:14:59,700 --> 01:15:02,463
this alone cannot explain
Neanderthals' disappearance.
1754
01:15:03,900 --> 01:15:07,080
So was it the ingenuity and
creativity of Homo sapiens
1755
01:15:07,080 --> 01:15:08,930
which hastened Neanderthal's exit
1756
01:15:08,930 --> 01:15:10,583
from the path of evolution?
1757
01:15:23,320 --> 01:15:27,170
During the 5,000 years'
cohabitation with sapiens in Europe,
1758
01:15:27,170 --> 01:15:29,640
the last Neanderthal
tribes were also developing
1759
01:15:29,640 --> 01:15:31,063
new ways of doing things.
1760
01:15:32,610 --> 01:15:35,400
This was proof of their
incredible capacity to adapt,
1761
01:15:35,400 --> 01:15:37,793
even if by that stage, it was too late.
1762
01:15:39,880 --> 01:15:43,600
(insects chirping)
1763
01:15:43,600 --> 01:15:45,410
At Saint-Cesaire in Charente
1764
01:15:45,410 --> 01:15:47,900
or at Arcy-sur-Cure in Burgundy,
1765
01:15:47,900 --> 01:15:49,950
Neanderthals crafted ornaments
1766
01:15:49,950 --> 01:15:52,190
like necklaces made out
of the teeth of wolves,
1767
01:15:52,190 --> 01:15:54,160
foxes, or bears,
1768
01:15:54,160 --> 01:15:55,973
or out of perforated shells.
1769
01:15:56,890 --> 01:15:59,886
This was a surprising
evolution in their way of life.
1770
01:15:59,886 --> 01:16:04,886
(Neanderthal and Homo sapiens
speaking in foreign language)
1771
01:16:10,972 --> 01:16:11,994
(speaking in foreign language)
1772
01:16:11,994 --> 01:16:13,235
- [Translator] Once
they came into contact,
1773
01:16:13,235 --> 01:16:16,400
whether their interactions
were positive or negative,
1774
01:16:16,400 --> 01:16:19,200
exchanges clearly took place.
1775
01:16:19,200 --> 01:16:20,560
They could have been biological
1776
01:16:20,560 --> 01:16:22,430
and they could also have been behavioral,
1777
01:16:22,430 --> 01:16:24,380
because innovations created by neighbors
1778
01:16:24,380 --> 01:16:26,223
are always interesting to adopt.
1779
01:16:27,340 --> 01:16:29,040
From that moment on, these changes spread
1780
01:16:29,040 --> 01:16:31,667
into the Neanderthal world as well.
1781
01:16:31,667 --> 01:16:33,040
(serene music)
1782
01:16:33,040 --> 01:16:35,020
- [Narrator] So did the
Neanderthals also develop
1783
01:16:35,020 --> 01:16:36,493
their own artistic skills?
1784
01:16:38,670 --> 01:16:40,830
These knives, discovered at Chatelperron
1785
01:16:40,830 --> 01:16:42,260
in the center of France,
1786
01:16:42,260 --> 01:16:45,170
are very similar to
knives made by sapiens.
1787
01:16:45,170 --> 01:16:46,270
Are they simply the signs
1788
01:16:46,270 --> 01:16:48,920
that the Neanderthals and
sapiens exchanged know-how?
1789
01:16:56,280 --> 01:16:58,240
Because Neanderthals certainly didn't wait
1790
01:16:58,240 --> 01:16:59,580
for sapiens to arrive
1791
01:16:59,580 --> 01:17:02,070
to develop their own aesthetic values.
1792
01:17:02,070 --> 01:17:04,600
They weren't the
stereotypical crude beings,
1793
01:17:04,600 --> 01:17:07,180
insensitive to the beauty of the world.
1794
01:17:07,180 --> 01:17:10,500
For example, they crafted
this fragile rock crystal,
1795
01:17:10,500 --> 01:17:13,093
excavated from Abri des
Merveilles in the Dordogne.
1796
01:17:15,365 --> 01:17:17,490
(electronic beeping)
1797
01:17:17,490 --> 01:17:18,470
At the back of a cave,
1798
01:17:18,470 --> 01:17:22,070
180,000 years ago in Bruniquel
in the south of France,
1799
01:17:22,070 --> 01:17:25,386
they put together unusual
stalagmite structures.
1800
01:17:25,386 --> 01:17:26,550
(electronic beeping)
1801
01:17:26,550 --> 01:17:28,430
In Gibraltar, 40,000 years ago,
1802
01:17:28,430 --> 01:17:31,323
they carved a mysterious
symbolic shape on a rock.
1803
01:17:36,070 --> 01:17:38,260
In the Krapina Caves in Croatia,
1804
01:17:38,260 --> 01:17:39,850
Davorka Radovcic found,
1805
01:17:39,850 --> 01:17:42,670
amongst the other
130,000-year-old remains,
1806
01:17:42,670 --> 01:17:44,933
claws belonging to three different eagles.
1807
01:17:46,900 --> 01:17:48,970
- We noticed that there is
1808
01:17:48,970 --> 01:17:52,060
eight talons in the Krapina collection.
1809
01:17:52,060 --> 01:17:54,990
And we noticed that all of them
1810
01:17:54,990 --> 01:17:58,973
have some kind of a
human-made modification.
1811
01:18:00,780 --> 01:18:01,860
- [Narrator] These traces are the proof
1812
01:18:01,860 --> 01:18:03,700
that plant fibers or animal tendons
1813
01:18:03,700 --> 01:18:06,113
were cleverly tied
around the eagle's claws.
1814
01:18:07,800 --> 01:18:09,570
- And because there's some modification
1815
01:18:09,570 --> 01:18:11,260
that indicated they were
1816
01:18:11,260 --> 01:18:13,250
somehow rubbed against each other,
1817
01:18:13,250 --> 01:18:15,480
some kind of polishing of these talons,
1818
01:18:15,480 --> 01:18:17,940
we think they were using these claws
1819
01:18:17,940 --> 01:18:19,433
as some kind of a ornament.
1820
01:18:26,690 --> 01:18:27,970
- [Narrator] The great animals of nature
1821
01:18:27,970 --> 01:18:30,663
were given meaning and
value by archaic man.
1822
01:18:33,996 --> 01:18:36,829
(bird screeching)
1823
01:18:42,420 --> 01:18:43,850
In Italy and in Spain,
1824
01:18:43,850 --> 01:18:44,707
the remains that have been found
1825
01:18:44,707 --> 01:18:47,910
of the wings of golden
eagles and black vultures
1826
01:18:47,910 --> 01:18:50,184
prove that their feathers
were used as ornaments.
1827
01:18:50,184 --> 01:18:52,510
(bird screeching)
1828
01:18:52,510 --> 01:18:54,030
In the imagination of Neanderthals,
1829
01:18:54,030 --> 01:18:55,550
these large birds of prey
1830
01:18:55,550 --> 01:18:57,233
weren't just ordinary birds.
1831
01:18:59,580 --> 01:19:02,103
Neanderthal art expressed
itself in many ways.
1832
01:19:03,230 --> 01:19:05,450
They wore trinkets made out of shells.
1833
01:19:05,450 --> 01:19:07,470
They used ochre and manganese pigments
1834
01:19:07,470 --> 01:19:08,763
to decorate their bodies.
1835
01:19:09,920 --> 01:19:12,273
And they wore animal
skins and other objects.
1836
01:19:13,883 --> 01:19:16,633
(fire crackling)
1837
01:19:18,530 --> 01:19:21,180
Well before the arrival
of sapiens in Europe,
1838
01:19:21,180 --> 01:19:22,650
these humans knew perfectly well
1839
01:19:22,650 --> 01:19:24,850
how to create aesthetically
pleasing things.
1840
01:19:25,720 --> 01:19:28,409
They were the first exponents
of prehistoric drawings.
1841
01:19:28,409 --> 01:19:30,350
(electronic beeping)
1842
01:19:30,350 --> 01:19:32,450
At Roche-Cotard in the center of France,
1843
01:19:32,450 --> 01:19:33,970
Neanderthals used their fingers
1844
01:19:33,970 --> 01:19:36,150
to paint on the cave walls.
1845
01:19:36,150 --> 01:19:37,319
They carved out this stone
1846
01:19:37,319 --> 01:19:40,003
and inserted a piece
of bone to make a face.
1847
01:19:45,654 --> 01:19:47,620
(Neanderthal grunting)
1848
01:19:47,620 --> 01:19:49,870
These flashes of Neanderthal creativity
1849
01:19:49,870 --> 01:19:51,810
paved the way for the great artistic works
1850
01:19:51,810 --> 01:19:53,967
of sapiens to come.
(Neanderthal grunting)
1851
01:19:53,967 --> 01:19:56,800
(paint squishing)
1852
01:19:58,460 --> 01:20:00,960
Neanderthals and sapiens
exchanged their know-how.
1853
01:20:01,997 --> 01:20:03,070
(dramatic music)
1854
01:20:03,070 --> 01:20:05,580
But did they go further than that?
1855
01:20:05,580 --> 01:20:07,240
Did they have intimate relationships
1856
01:20:07,240 --> 01:20:08,440
which produced children?
1857
01:20:09,950 --> 01:20:12,000
And did these children of mixed species
1858
01:20:12,000 --> 01:20:13,400
themselves have descendants?
1859
01:20:15,354 --> 01:20:18,693
(tool hissing)
1860
01:20:18,693 --> 01:20:21,776
(electronic beeping)
1861
01:20:26,840 --> 01:20:30,070
In 2010, Professor
Svante Paabo and his team
1862
01:20:30,070 --> 01:20:31,420
pulled off the amazing feat
1863
01:20:31,420 --> 01:20:33,630
of deciphering the genetic sequences
1864
01:20:33,630 --> 01:20:35,267
found in Neanderthal remains
1865
01:20:35,267 --> 01:20:37,930
in the Vindija Cave in Croatia.
1866
01:20:37,930 --> 01:20:41,013
(electronic beeping)
1867
01:20:44,280 --> 01:20:46,410
Thanks to the progress
of molecular biology,
1868
01:20:46,410 --> 01:20:48,610
these scientists at Max Planck in Leipzig
1869
01:20:48,610 --> 01:20:52,072
sequenced this 47,000-year-old DNA.
1870
01:20:52,072 --> 01:20:53,840
(suspenseful music)
1871
01:20:53,840 --> 01:20:55,330
What these tests highlighted
1872
01:20:55,330 --> 01:20:56,860
is that Neanderthal DNA
1873
01:20:56,860 --> 01:20:59,470
is as close as 98.5%
1874
01:20:59,470 --> 01:21:00,703
to our own DNA.
1875
01:21:05,590 --> 01:21:07,700
So is it the blood that runs in our veins
1876
01:21:07,700 --> 01:21:09,310
that can help solve some of the mysteries
1877
01:21:09,310 --> 01:21:11,610
surrounding the disappearance
of Neanderthals?
1878
01:21:13,330 --> 01:21:15,390
Scientists now have a
vital piece of evidence
1879
01:21:15,390 --> 01:21:16,840
at their disposal.
1880
01:21:16,840 --> 01:21:18,110
Neanderthals and sapiens
1881
01:21:18,110 --> 01:21:20,143
share more or less the same genome.
1882
01:21:21,570 --> 01:21:23,060
So it's entirely possible
1883
01:21:23,060 --> 01:21:25,860
that the union of these two
species could have happened.
1884
01:21:27,220 --> 01:21:28,950
And in order to confirm this theory,
1885
01:21:28,950 --> 01:21:31,420
scientists compared
the genes of Europeans,
1886
01:21:31,420 --> 01:21:33,140
Asians, Africans,
1887
01:21:33,140 --> 01:21:35,060
Oceanians, and Americans
1888
01:21:35,060 --> 01:21:36,410
with those of Neanderthals.
1889
01:21:37,620 --> 01:21:40,334
The whole world was staggered
by their conclusions.
1890
01:21:40,334 --> 01:21:42,780
(researchers chattering quietly)
1891
01:21:42,780 --> 01:21:44,815
- What we found when we first sequenced
1892
01:21:44,815 --> 01:21:47,570
the first Neanderthal genome was that
1893
01:21:47,570 --> 01:21:50,000
people that live outside of Africa today
1894
01:21:50,000 --> 01:21:52,640
all carry small amounts
of the Neanderthal genome.
1895
01:21:52,640 --> 01:21:55,050
In the range of 2% of the genomes
1896
01:21:55,050 --> 01:21:56,420
of all people outside of Africa
1897
01:21:56,420 --> 01:21:59,390
come from interbreeding
with the Neanderthals.
1898
01:21:59,390 --> 01:22:01,737
And we estimate that that
happened somewhere between
1899
01:22:01,737 --> 01:22:03,629
50,000 and 70,000 years ago.
1900
01:22:03,629 --> 01:22:05,650
(thunder rumbling)
1901
01:22:05,650 --> 01:22:08,600
- [Narrator] Neanderthals and
sapiens had coupled together.
1902
01:22:11,970 --> 01:22:15,080
Since African populations did
not inherit Neanderthal genes,
1903
01:22:15,080 --> 01:22:17,470
this interbreeding took
place in the Middle East
1904
01:22:17,470 --> 01:22:18,358
or in Eurasia.
1905
01:22:18,358 --> 01:22:19,379
(rain pattering)
(thunder rumbling)
1906
01:22:19,379 --> 01:22:22,212
(couple grunting)
1907
01:22:27,890 --> 01:22:30,160
Genetic research has proved
that Neanderthal blood
1908
01:22:30,160 --> 01:22:32,100
runs in our veins.
1909
01:22:32,100 --> 01:22:34,389
All we need is the archeological proof.
1910
01:22:34,389 --> 01:22:36,965
(eerie music)
1911
01:22:36,965 --> 01:22:39,000
(electronic beeping)
1912
01:22:39,000 --> 01:22:40,770
In the spring of 2002,
1913
01:22:40,770 --> 01:22:42,123
at Pestera cu Oase,
1914
01:22:43,040 --> 01:22:45,060
in the heart of a Romanian forest,
1915
01:22:45,060 --> 01:22:47,430
a team of forests entered a small cave
1916
01:22:47,430 --> 01:22:48,980
into which a river disappeared.
1917
01:22:53,470 --> 01:22:54,830
In one of these deep galleries,
1918
01:22:54,830 --> 01:22:56,943
the researchers dug up human remains.
1919
01:23:00,370 --> 01:23:01,210
After tests,
1920
01:23:01,210 --> 01:23:03,633
they turned out to be
fossils of Homo sapiens.
1921
01:23:06,545 --> 01:23:07,378
(speaking in foreign language)
1922
01:23:07,378 --> 01:23:08,211
- [Translator] The first thing we found
1923
01:23:08,211 --> 01:23:11,060
was a jawbone, which we called Oase 1.
1924
01:23:11,060 --> 01:23:13,683
And it turned out to be
the jawbone of a sapiens.
1925
01:23:14,730 --> 01:23:15,840
We then found remains
1926
01:23:15,840 --> 01:23:17,990
from at least two other individuals.
1927
01:23:17,990 --> 01:23:18,823
One had a skull,
1928
01:23:18,823 --> 01:23:20,640
which was almost completely intact,
1929
01:23:20,640 --> 01:23:22,440
not the other one.
1930
01:23:22,440 --> 01:23:25,849
We were able to carbon date
these fossils straightaway.
1931
01:23:25,849 --> 01:23:28,660
(ominous music)
1932
01:23:28,660 --> 01:23:30,540
- [Narrator] These Homo sapiens' fossils
1933
01:23:30,540 --> 01:23:32,170
came from the first modern humans
1934
01:23:32,170 --> 01:23:34,300
to have crossed over into Europe.
1935
01:23:34,300 --> 01:23:36,713
They date back 42,000 years.
1936
01:23:38,088 --> 01:23:39,510
(speaking in foreign language)
- Fortunately,
1937
01:23:39,510 --> 01:23:41,990
and this is what's so
wonderful about the discovery,
1938
01:23:41,990 --> 01:23:44,890
we were able not only to
carbon date the fossils,
1939
01:23:44,890 --> 01:23:47,610
but we were also able to test the DNA.
1940
01:23:47,610 --> 01:23:48,740
These tests showed
1941
01:23:48,740 --> 01:23:51,370
that part of this sapiens' fossil's genome
1942
01:23:51,370 --> 01:23:52,993
came from Neanderthals.
1943
01:23:55,420 --> 01:23:56,500
- [Narrator] This Homo sapiens
1944
01:23:56,500 --> 01:23:59,480
had around 6% of Neanderthal DNA,
1945
01:23:59,480 --> 01:24:01,580
which is much higher than in humans today.
1946
01:24:03,490 --> 01:24:04,960
This implies that this individual
1947
01:24:04,960 --> 01:24:06,230
had a Neanderthal ancestor
1948
01:24:06,230 --> 01:24:08,030
going back eight generations
1949
01:24:08,030 --> 01:24:09,773
or no more than 200 years.
1950
01:24:17,194 --> 01:24:20,180
But this is not the oldest
proof of interbreeding.
1951
01:24:20,180 --> 01:24:22,340
DNA samples from Siberian Neanderthals
1952
01:24:22,340 --> 01:24:25,663
have shown other evidence
of the hybridization.
1953
01:24:26,808 --> 01:24:28,460
(speaking in foreign language)
- The Neanderthals in Denisova
1954
01:24:28,460 --> 01:24:31,263
contain several genetic
markers of modern-day humans
1955
01:24:31,263 --> 01:24:34,410
that European Neanderthals,
for example, don't have.
1956
01:24:34,410 --> 01:24:36,940
So it's likely that there
was an influx of genes
1957
01:24:36,940 --> 01:24:38,090
from modern-day humans
1958
01:24:38,090 --> 01:24:40,060
to the Neanderthals in Denisova,
1959
01:24:40,060 --> 01:24:42,210
either from the Middle
East or from Africa.
1960
01:24:43,440 --> 01:24:44,930
- [Narrator] These genetic clues confirm
1961
01:24:44,930 --> 01:24:46,340
that Neanderthals and sapiens
1962
01:24:46,340 --> 01:24:48,270
first came into contact with each other
1963
01:24:48,270 --> 01:24:51,490
around 120,000 years
ago in the Middle East
1964
01:24:51,490 --> 01:24:52,996
as sapiens migrated from Africa.
1965
01:24:52,996 --> 01:24:55,913
(female screaming)
1966
01:25:01,089 --> 01:25:04,940
(baby crying)
(female gasping)
1967
01:25:04,940 --> 01:25:07,250
The fossil remains in
Romania and in Siberia
1968
01:25:07,250 --> 01:25:09,970
proved that Neanderthals
and Homo sapiens coupled
1969
01:25:09,970 --> 01:25:11,380
during at least two periods
1970
01:25:11,380 --> 01:25:12,630
in the course of history.
1971
01:25:14,060 --> 01:25:16,410
Once, around 120,000 years ago,
1972
01:25:16,410 --> 01:25:18,863
and a second time around
60,000 years later.
1973
01:25:19,850 --> 01:25:22,130
These two periods of genetic intermingling
1974
01:25:22,130 --> 01:25:24,630
took place in the Middle
East and in Central Asia.
1975
01:25:27,770 --> 01:25:30,170
Neanderthals transmitted
a part of their genome.
1976
01:25:31,560 --> 01:25:32,810
Outside of Africa,
1977
01:25:32,810 --> 01:25:36,640
every human possesses about
2% of Neanderthal genes,
1978
01:25:36,640 --> 01:25:38,960
and they are never the same ones.
1979
01:25:38,960 --> 01:25:40,360
Put all together,
1980
01:25:40,360 --> 01:25:43,520
there is more than 30% of
Neanderthal genetic material
1981
01:25:43,520 --> 01:25:45,093
which lives on in us.
1982
01:25:46,660 --> 01:25:49,840
So what is the genetic
material that we inherited?
1983
01:25:49,840 --> 01:25:52,340
(baby crying)
1984
01:25:54,739 --> 01:25:55,890
(speaking in foreign language)
- Fair skins,
1985
01:25:55,890 --> 01:25:57,570
which we see in Asia and Europe
1986
01:25:57,570 --> 01:25:58,590
are genetic elements
1987
01:25:58,590 --> 01:26:00,750
that come from the Neanderthals.
1988
01:26:00,750 --> 01:26:03,750
There are also genetic
elements in our immune systems
1989
01:26:03,750 --> 01:26:04,893
which come from them.
1990
01:26:06,970 --> 01:26:09,410
- [Narrator] So geneticists
have uncovered a vital gene
1991
01:26:09,410 --> 01:26:10,630
in our defense system
1992
01:26:10,630 --> 01:26:12,373
passed down by Neanderthals.
1993
01:26:14,660 --> 01:26:16,320
It helps to fight infections,
1994
01:26:16,320 --> 01:26:18,113
and it's called the HLA gene.
1995
01:26:19,420 --> 01:26:22,270
Neanderthals have helped us
to protect against illnesses.
1996
01:26:23,900 --> 01:26:26,800
- Humans carry a lot of
variation in their genomes,
1997
01:26:26,800 --> 01:26:29,900
and some of that variation
comes from Neanderthals.
1998
01:26:29,900 --> 01:26:32,370
And some of it is positive
and some of it is negative.
1999
01:26:32,370 --> 01:26:33,940
So we have alleles from Neanderthals
2000
01:26:33,940 --> 01:26:36,210
that protect us against some diseases,
2001
01:26:36,210 --> 01:26:37,740
and we have alleles from Neanderthals
2002
01:26:37,740 --> 01:26:40,090
that increase our risk for some diseases.
2003
01:26:40,090 --> 01:26:42,230
For example, our risk of
2004
01:26:43,240 --> 01:26:46,563
type 2 diabetes is increased
by a Neanderthal variant.
2005
01:26:48,080 --> 01:26:49,410
- [Narrator] The process of analyzing
2006
01:26:49,410 --> 01:26:52,120
Neanderthal inheritance is far from over.
2007
01:26:52,120 --> 01:26:55,250
Genomics, the science of
sequencing and mapping genomes,
2008
01:26:55,250 --> 01:26:57,480
is only just beginning to
give us an overall view
2009
01:26:57,480 --> 01:26:59,853
of what our ancestors
have passed down to us.
2010
01:27:02,253 --> 01:27:03,840
(Neanderthal grunting)
2011
01:27:03,840 --> 01:27:06,540
This genetic input is
like a memory of our past,
2012
01:27:06,540 --> 01:27:08,021
the history of our species,
2013
01:27:08,021 --> 01:27:09,502
(Neanderthal growling playfully)
2014
01:27:09,502 --> 01:27:11,090
and also the history of the encounter
2015
01:27:11,090 --> 01:27:13,351
between Homo sapiens and Neanderthals.
2016
01:27:13,351 --> 01:27:14,319
(Homo sapiens speaking
in foreign language)
2017
01:27:14,319 --> 01:27:16,878
(child giggling)
2018
01:27:16,878 --> 01:27:19,090
- The fact that all
people outside of Africa
2019
01:27:19,090 --> 01:27:22,010
have a small proportion of Neanderthal DNA
2020
01:27:22,010 --> 01:27:23,670
floating around in our genome,
2021
01:27:23,670 --> 01:27:25,680
this really makes us question
2022
01:27:25,680 --> 01:27:28,920
how far the Neanderthals
have really become extinct.
2023
01:27:28,920 --> 01:27:30,620
We can clearly say that
they've disappeared
2024
01:27:30,620 --> 01:27:32,760
as a living, breeding species.
2025
01:27:32,760 --> 01:27:35,590
But the fact their genes
survive inside of us
2026
01:27:35,590 --> 01:27:37,330
really poses some quite
interesting questions
2027
01:27:37,330 --> 01:27:39,580
about what extinction
does and does not mean.
2028
01:27:42,360 --> 01:27:44,350
- [Narrator] Those Neanderthals
who chose to interbreed
2029
01:27:44,350 --> 01:27:46,010
and share with sapiens
2030
01:27:46,010 --> 01:27:48,063
have passed on a precious legacy to us.
2031
01:27:50,812 --> 01:27:53,312
(baby cooing)
2032
01:27:54,600 --> 01:27:57,410
- We accumulate new genetic variation
2033
01:27:57,410 --> 01:27:59,980
driven by changes in our environment,
2034
01:27:59,980 --> 01:28:02,690
and we also gather new genetic variation
2035
01:28:02,690 --> 01:28:04,840
by interbreeding with
closely related groups
2036
01:28:04,840 --> 01:28:06,040
like the Neanderthals.
2037
01:28:06,040 --> 01:28:06,960
I think no one had thought
2038
01:28:06,960 --> 01:28:08,740
that that was a very important feature
2039
01:28:08,740 --> 01:28:09,573
in human evolution.
2040
01:28:09,573 --> 01:28:11,820
(baby crying)
2041
01:28:11,820 --> 01:28:13,960
- [Narrator] Both modern-day
humans and Neanderthals
2042
01:28:13,960 --> 01:28:15,263
have a common heritage.
2043
01:28:18,170 --> 01:28:19,750
And even if they're no longer around
2044
01:28:19,750 --> 01:28:21,710
as a related species,
2045
01:28:21,710 --> 01:28:24,280
the memories of the journey
that we made together
2046
01:28:24,280 --> 01:28:25,113
live on.
2047
01:28:26,000 --> 01:28:28,200
- I don't make a sharp distinction
2048
01:28:28,200 --> 01:28:31,060
between Neanderthal and modern human.
2049
01:28:31,060 --> 01:28:34,350
Those are two hominin groups,
2050
01:28:34,350 --> 01:28:39,350
and I tend to put them together.
2051
01:28:39,930 --> 01:28:43,060
It's not just we are
carrying certain amount of
2052
01:28:43,060 --> 01:28:44,420
Neanderthal genes.
2053
01:28:44,420 --> 01:28:47,110
In a way, we are all Neanderthal,
2054
01:28:47,110 --> 01:28:49,323
as we are all modern human.
2055
01:28:50,800 --> 01:28:52,550
- [Narrator] The Neanderthals,
2056
01:28:52,550 --> 01:28:53,853
our human siblings,
2057
01:28:55,020 --> 01:28:57,593
children of Africa and of Europe,
2058
01:28:57,593 --> 01:28:58,605
(Neanderthal speaking in foreign language)
2059
01:28:58,605 --> 01:28:59,438
(water splashing)
2060
01:28:59,438 --> 01:29:00,271
(Neanderthal grunting)
2061
01:29:00,271 --> 01:29:01,473
prehistoric athletes,
2062
01:29:02,390 --> 01:29:03,291
skilled hunters,
2063
01:29:03,291 --> 01:29:07,520
(spear whooshing)
(bison grunting)
2064
01:29:07,520 --> 01:29:10,503
pioneering artists and
outstanding craftspeople,
2065
01:29:13,640 --> 01:29:16,083
inventors and ingenious engineers,
2066
01:29:18,100 --> 01:29:20,483
tireless travelers,
exploring their limits,
2067
01:29:23,560 --> 01:29:26,996
healers, doctors, and herbalists,
2068
01:29:26,996 --> 01:29:28,440
(baby crying)
carers of children,
2069
01:29:28,440 --> 01:29:31,130
families and clans to
the end of their days,
2070
01:29:31,130 --> 01:29:33,040
their heritage goes beyond the genes
2071
01:29:33,040 --> 01:29:34,463
that they passed down to us.
2072
01:29:37,990 --> 01:29:40,560
No one killed off the Neanderthals.
2073
01:29:40,560 --> 01:29:42,739
Neanderthals live on in us.
2074
01:29:42,739 --> 01:29:44,508
(dramatic music)
2075
01:29:44,508 --> 01:29:48,341
(singing in foreign language)
2076
01:30:18,788 --> 01:30:21,371
(serene music)
2077
01:30:22,305 --> 01:31:22,392
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