Would you like to inspect the original subtitles? These are the user uploaded subtitles that are being translated:
1
00:00:03,571 --> 00:00:08,073
MICHAEL EMERSON:
One night in 1669, a German
alchemist named Hennig Brandt
2
00:00:08,142 --> 00:00:12,144
was searching, as he did every
night, for a way to make gold.
3
00:00:12,213 --> 00:00:15,714
For some time, Brandt had
focused his research on urine.
4
00:00:15,783 --> 00:00:21,954
He was certain the "golden
stream" held the key.
5
00:00:22,023 --> 00:00:24,790
Tonight, his patience
would at last be rewarded.
6
00:00:24,859 --> 00:00:28,160
He had boiled the urine down
to a concentrated paste.
7
00:00:28,229 --> 00:00:32,364
Now he subjected it
to intense heat.
8
00:00:32,433 --> 00:00:38,237
Was this the legendary elixir
that would turn lead into gold?
9
00:00:38,305 --> 00:00:40,406
Alas, it was not.
10
00:00:40,474 --> 00:00:43,876
Brandt had stumbled
on the element phosphorus.
11
00:00:43,944 --> 00:00:46,412
This is how the discovery
of elements began:
12
00:00:46,480 --> 00:00:49,581
with people trying to turn
the substances of nature
13
00:00:49,650 --> 00:00:52,851
into something useful
or valuable.
14
00:00:52,920 --> 00:00:54,853
But people
are naturally curious,
15
00:00:54,922 --> 00:00:56,755
so as they worked
with these materials,
16
00:00:56,824 --> 00:00:59,958
they began to wonder,
"What is this stuff?
17
00:01:00,027 --> 00:01:02,327
What is the world made of?"
18
00:01:02,396 --> 00:01:05,631
Thousands of years ago, the
Greeks proposed that the world
19
00:01:05,699 --> 00:01:08,200
is actually made of just
four elements in combination:
20
00:01:08,269 --> 00:01:11,070
air, water, earth and fire.
21
00:01:11,138 --> 00:01:12,571
Today, we know that matter
22
00:01:12,640 --> 00:01:15,774
actually comes in more than
a hundred distinct varieties,
23
00:01:15,843 --> 00:01:19,278
neatly arranged in the periodic
table of the elements.
24
00:01:19,346 --> 00:01:23,549
But for most of history,
matter was a profound mystery,
25
00:01:23,617 --> 00:01:27,586
a 2,000-year detective story
in which people across the world
26
00:01:27,655 --> 00:01:30,289
were trying to identify
the elements
27
00:01:30,357 --> 00:01:32,124
and figure out how to use them.
28
00:01:32,193 --> 00:01:36,628
It's an amazing story, filled
with unforgettable characters.
29
00:01:36,697 --> 00:01:40,199
In this series, you'll meet
seven extraordinary scientists
30
00:01:40,267 --> 00:01:43,268
whose findings drove the search
for the elements.
31
00:01:43,337 --> 00:01:45,838
So join me
as we retrace the steps
32
00:01:45,906 --> 00:01:48,006
of these chemical detectives
33
00:01:48,075 --> 00:01:51,577
as they struggle to solve
the mystery of matter.
34
00:02:01,889 --> 00:02:04,623
(shouting and laughing)
35
00:02:04,692 --> 00:02:07,292
¶ ¶
36
00:02:32,086 --> 00:02:33,652
Major funding
37
00:02:33,721 --> 00:02:34,820
for The Mystery of Matter:
Search for the Elements
38
00:02:34,889 --> 00:02:36,288
was provided by...
39
00:02:36,357 --> 00:02:38,323
The National Science
Foundation,
40
00:02:38,392 --> 00:02:41,326
where discoveries begin.
41
00:02:41,395 --> 00:02:43,729
Additional funding
provided by...
42
00:02:43,797 --> 00:02:45,964
The Arthur Vining Davis
Foundations,
43
00:02:46,033 --> 00:02:48,600
dedicated to strengthening
America's future
44
00:02:48,669 --> 00:02:50,536
through education.
45
00:02:50,604 --> 00:02:52,437
And by the following:
46
00:03:01,081 --> 00:03:03,982
One of the first big clues
in solving the mystery of matter
47
00:03:04,051 --> 00:03:05,551
came from the discovery
48
00:03:05,619 --> 00:03:09,655
of the most immaterial stuff
you can imagine: air.
49
00:03:09,723 --> 00:03:11,890
Of course, people have always
known about air.
50
00:03:11,959 --> 00:03:13,759
They could feel the wind
on their faces
51
00:03:13,827 --> 00:03:15,861
and see its powerful effects
in storms.
52
00:03:15,930 --> 00:03:17,129
What they didn't know
53
00:03:17,198 --> 00:03:20,432
was that there's more
than one kind of air.
54
00:03:20,501 --> 00:03:23,168
That changed in 1754,
55
00:03:23,237 --> 00:03:26,438
when a young Scottish medical
student named Joseph Black
56
00:03:26,507 --> 00:03:30,075
set out to find a cure
for kidney stones.
57
00:03:30,144 --> 00:03:34,179
He poured acid
on this chalky substance...
58
00:03:37,017 --> 00:03:39,384
...and trapped the air
that came out.
59
00:03:39,453 --> 00:03:43,255
To his surprise, this "air"
didn't behave like air at all.
60
00:03:43,324 --> 00:03:50,629
It was heavier than ordinary air
and promptly put out a flame.
61
00:03:50,698 --> 00:03:53,031
Black's discovery of fixed air--
62
00:03:53,100 --> 00:03:54,933
what we now call
carbon dioxide--
63
00:03:55,002 --> 00:03:57,035
was a turning point
in the history of science.
64
00:03:57,104 --> 00:04:00,505
People had long known
about liquids and solids.
65
00:04:00,574 --> 00:04:02,608
Now suddenly, they realized
66
00:04:02,676 --> 00:04:05,877
there was a third state
of matter-- gases--
67
00:04:05,946 --> 00:04:08,914
of which air
is just one example.
68
00:04:08,983 --> 00:04:10,315
Over the next 20 years,
69
00:04:10,384 --> 00:04:12,751
the exploration
of this new dimension
70
00:04:12,820 --> 00:04:15,921
would transform
our understanding of matter.
71
00:04:15,990 --> 00:04:18,090
After Black's discovery,
72
00:04:18,158 --> 00:04:22,494
British scientists quickly
identified two more new gases:
73
00:04:22,563 --> 00:04:24,997
hydrogen and nitrogen.
74
00:04:25,065 --> 00:04:28,033
And then in the early 1770s,
75
00:04:28,102 --> 00:04:31,003
that astonishing investigator
Joseph Priestley
76
00:04:31,071 --> 00:04:35,540
discovers all sorts of new airs.
77
00:04:35,609 --> 00:04:39,478
EMERSON:
Priestley was a minister
by trade,
78
00:04:39,546 --> 00:04:41,246
but also an amateur scientist--
79
00:04:41,315 --> 00:04:45,350
what was then called
a natural philosopher.
80
00:04:45,419 --> 00:04:49,054
He was a great dabbler in things
81
00:04:49,123 --> 00:04:51,657
and was constantly getting
obsessed with new fields.
82
00:04:51,725 --> 00:04:54,593
EMERSON:
Fields like the new science
of gases.
83
00:04:54,662 --> 00:04:58,697
MAUSKOPF:
Priestley's style of science
is very interesting.
84
00:04:58,766 --> 00:05:01,033
He's a kind of inspired forager.
85
00:05:01,101 --> 00:05:04,870
He's basically messing around
with different things
86
00:05:04,938 --> 00:05:08,840
to see what will happen.
87
00:05:08,909 --> 00:05:15,180
One of the things Priestley did
was to pour acid on everything.
88
00:05:15,249 --> 00:05:19,584
He collected those bubbles,
tested them thoroughly
89
00:05:19,653 --> 00:05:23,322
and discovered all sorts
of amazing properties.
90
00:05:23,390 --> 00:05:26,191
EMERSON:
By "messing around" in this way,
91
00:05:26,260 --> 00:05:29,094
Priestley discovered
nine new gases--
92
00:05:29,163 --> 00:05:31,997
more than anyone else
in the world.
93
00:05:32,066 --> 00:05:34,733
JOHNSON:
He was very much open
to chance discoveries.
94
00:05:34,802 --> 00:05:36,068
He would stumble across things
95
00:05:36,136 --> 00:05:37,436
and he would follow
his instincts.
96
00:05:37,504 --> 00:05:38,904
And he was always looking
97
00:05:38,972 --> 00:05:40,839
for these kind of fortuitous
accidents.
98
00:05:40,908 --> 00:05:44,376
EMERSON:
One such accident happened
in 1767,
99
00:05:44,445 --> 00:05:47,212
when Priestley was assigned
a new congregation.
100
00:05:47,281 --> 00:05:49,281
JOHNSON:
They put him in a house
101
00:05:49,350 --> 00:05:51,016
that happens to be right next
to a brewery.
102
00:05:51,085 --> 00:05:53,018
And this turns out to be an
incredible stroke of good luck.
103
00:05:53,087 --> 00:05:56,088
Priestley, being the constant
investigator that he was,
104
00:05:56,156 --> 00:05:57,723
would kind of pop over
105
00:05:57,791 --> 00:06:00,158
and see what was going on
at this brewery.
106
00:06:00,227 --> 00:06:02,661
EMERSON:
Just above the vats of beer,
107
00:06:02,730 --> 00:06:05,630
he discovered a haze
of carbon dioxide
108
00:06:05,699 --> 00:06:08,200
bubbling up
from the fermenting brew.
109
00:06:08,268 --> 00:06:11,603
And he decided he wanted to do
some experiments
110
00:06:11,672 --> 00:06:12,838
with their beer.
111
00:06:12,906 --> 00:06:15,807
Well, fortunately,
they said yes.
112
00:06:15,876 --> 00:06:18,043
Priestley found that
if he simply poured water
113
00:06:18,112 --> 00:06:20,312
from one glass to another
over the surface,
114
00:06:20,381 --> 00:06:23,849
the water would absorb the gas
rising from the beer.
115
00:06:23,917 --> 00:06:26,918
The result was
refreshingly bubbly.
116
00:06:26,987 --> 00:06:32,290
By 1772, he had invented
a better method:
117
00:06:32,359 --> 00:06:34,659
generating carbon dioxide
118
00:06:34,728 --> 00:06:37,529
and injecting it directly
into water.
119
00:06:39,400 --> 00:06:41,500
PRIESTLEY (dramatized):
In the space of two
or three minutes,
120
00:06:41,568 --> 00:06:43,235
I can make a glass
121
00:06:43,303 --> 00:06:45,337
of exceedingly pleasant
sparkling water.
122
00:06:48,709 --> 00:06:50,442
You can't tell the difference
between this
123
00:06:50,511 --> 00:06:52,010
and natural mineral water.
124
00:06:53,714 --> 00:06:55,747
Priestley had invented
carbonation.
125
00:06:55,816 --> 00:06:58,550
Remember that the next time
you enjoy a soft drink.
126
00:06:58,619 --> 00:07:02,053
But with this act,
he also set in motion
127
00:07:02,122 --> 00:07:04,089
a series of improbable events
128
00:07:04,158 --> 00:07:07,893
that would soon overturn
our understanding of matter.
129
00:07:07,961 --> 00:07:11,396
It began when a British doctor
130
00:07:11,465 --> 00:07:13,965
suggested Priestley's
"windy water"
131
00:07:14,034 --> 00:07:16,568
might be effective
as a treatment for scurvy,
132
00:07:16,637 --> 00:07:21,640
a disease that plagued sailors
on long sea voyages.
133
00:07:21,708 --> 00:07:24,509
JOHNSON:
Scurvy was a huge problem for
the military during that period,
134
00:07:24,578 --> 00:07:26,778
and so the idea that there was
this potential solution
135
00:07:26,847 --> 00:07:29,848
that also happened to be
a tasty beverage was appealing.
136
00:07:29,917 --> 00:07:33,385
EMERSON:
In 1772, Priestley addressed
137
00:07:33,454 --> 00:07:37,122
Britain's leading scientific
organization, the Royal Society,
138
00:07:37,191 --> 00:07:38,824
and published a pamphlet
139
00:07:38,892 --> 00:07:41,593
describing his method
for making soda water.
140
00:07:41,662 --> 00:07:45,363
He urged the British navy
to test the potential cure.
141
00:07:45,432 --> 00:07:49,000
Quick to pick up
on this development
142
00:07:49,069 --> 00:07:53,538
was a defrocked Portuguese monk
named João Jacinto de Magellan.
143
00:07:53,607 --> 00:07:56,541
A distant relative of the great
Portuguese navigator,
144
00:07:56,610 --> 00:08:02,247
he was now serving
as a French industrial spy.
145
00:08:02,316 --> 00:08:04,716
Magellan is in the employ
of the French government
146
00:08:04,785 --> 00:08:08,220
and is there basically
scouting out the Royal Society
147
00:08:08,288 --> 00:08:09,754
for interesting items
148
00:08:09,823 --> 00:08:12,691
that he might be able
to bring back to his bosses.
149
00:08:12,759 --> 00:08:14,893
EMERSON:
Sensing a potential
military secret,
150
00:08:14,962 --> 00:08:17,796
Magellan alerted his handler
back in France:
151
00:08:17,865 --> 00:08:22,367
Commerce Minister Jean Charles
Trudaine de Montigny.
152
00:08:22,436 --> 00:08:25,337
MAUSKOPF:
Trudaine was interested
in science,
153
00:08:25,405 --> 00:08:28,940
was a member of the French
Royal Academy of Sciences,
154
00:08:29,009 --> 00:08:33,912
and immediately saw
the possible value of this.
155
00:08:33,981 --> 00:08:36,648
EMERSON:
Trudaine, in turn,
called on one of France's
156
00:08:36,717 --> 00:08:40,585
brightest young chemists,
Antoine Laurent Lavoisier.
157
00:08:40,654 --> 00:08:42,487
(men speaking French)
158
00:08:49,630 --> 00:08:53,098
TRUDAINE:
"I know your precision when it
comes to physics and chemistry,
159
00:08:53,166 --> 00:08:56,301
"and I'm giving you a chance to
be of service to your country.
160
00:08:56,370 --> 00:09:02,340
"Please repeat these experiments
and add your own observations.
161
00:09:02,409 --> 00:09:06,211
The value of these discoveries
depends on our moving quickly."
162
00:09:06,280 --> 00:09:12,117
I hope you will not be long in
getting this little work done.
163
00:09:12,185 --> 00:09:14,386
Trudaine probably intended
this politely phrased letter
164
00:09:14,454 --> 00:09:16,221
as an order
rather than a request.
165
00:09:16,290 --> 00:09:19,925
Lavoisier really couldn't
ignore it.
166
00:09:22,129 --> 00:09:25,864
EMERSON:
Though soda water would turn out
to be useless against scurvy,
167
00:09:25,933 --> 00:09:29,067
this pointed suggestion
by a government official,
168
00:09:29,136 --> 00:09:32,070
acting on a tip
from a Portuguese spy,
169
00:09:32,139 --> 00:09:36,207
would set Lavoisier on the path
toward his greatest discoveries.
170
00:09:40,714 --> 00:09:43,481
Born into a well-to-do
Parisian family,
171
00:09:43,550 --> 00:09:46,117
Lavoisier had received
a fine education
172
00:09:46,186 --> 00:09:48,553
and taken a degree in law.
173
00:09:48,622 --> 00:09:51,323
Now 28, he had joined
a consortium
174
00:09:51,391 --> 00:09:54,693
that collected taxes
for King Louis XV.
175
00:09:54,761 --> 00:10:00,599
MAUSKOPF:
As a result, Lavoisier became
a very wealthy man.
176
00:10:00,667 --> 00:10:03,468
EMERSON:
But his true passion
was chemistry.
177
00:10:03,537 --> 00:10:06,771
Lavoisier spent three hours
in his private laboratory
178
00:10:06,840 --> 00:10:11,076
before work every day
and returned there after dinner,
179
00:10:11,144 --> 00:10:14,746
often accompanied
by his young wife.
180
00:10:14,815 --> 00:10:17,115
Marie-Anne Paulze
was the daughter
181
00:10:17,184 --> 00:10:18,850
of one of Lavoisier's
business partners.
182
00:10:18,919 --> 00:10:21,886
(speaking French)
183
00:10:21,955 --> 00:10:24,623
EMERSON:
She was just 13
when they were married,
184
00:10:24,691 --> 00:10:29,127
but bright, outgoing and mature
beyond her years.
185
00:10:29,196 --> 00:10:33,231
MAUSKOPF:
Marie-Anne was virtually
his collaborator.
186
00:10:33,300 --> 00:10:36,034
She knew English,
learned chemistry,
187
00:10:36,103 --> 00:10:38,970
assisted Lavoisier
in the laboratory.
188
00:10:39,039 --> 00:10:40,505
She was an extraordinary person.
189
00:10:40,574 --> 00:10:43,975
Had she lived in our own time,
she probably would have become
190
00:10:44,044 --> 00:10:47,946
an outstanding scientist
in her own right.
191
00:10:48,015 --> 00:10:49,981
EMERSON:
One of Marie-Anne's
most important roles
192
00:10:50,050 --> 00:10:53,184
was to create the diagrams
and illustrations
193
00:10:53,253 --> 00:10:56,221
that accompanied her husband's
published work.
194
00:10:56,289 --> 00:10:58,923
ROCKE:
Marie Lavoisier's drawings
give us the eyes
195
00:10:58,992 --> 00:11:01,860
to look directly
into Lavoisier's laboratory.
196
00:11:01,928 --> 00:11:03,128
We can see the people.
197
00:11:03,196 --> 00:11:04,429
We can see the devices.
198
00:11:04,498 --> 00:11:07,165
We can see the arrangement
of those devices.
199
00:11:07,234 --> 00:11:09,367
We can understand
what Lavoisier did
200
00:11:09,436 --> 00:11:13,838
so much better
because of what Marie drew.
201
00:11:13,907 --> 00:11:16,141
EMERSON:
Spurred on by Trudaine,
202
00:11:16,209 --> 00:11:19,010
Lavoisier eagerly studied
fresh translations
203
00:11:19,079 --> 00:11:21,813
of Black, Priestley
and the other British chemists
204
00:11:21,882 --> 00:11:24,983
who had pioneered
the study of "airs."
205
00:11:25,052 --> 00:11:27,919
LAVOISIER (dramatized):
The work of these previous
experimenters
206
00:11:27,988 --> 00:11:29,721
merely hints at what's happening
207
00:11:29,790 --> 00:11:32,624
when air is taken up or released
by different substances.
208
00:11:32,693 --> 00:11:35,126
I shall review all their work,
209
00:11:35,195 --> 00:11:38,029
repeat all their experiments,
taking new precautions,
210
00:11:38,098 --> 00:11:41,299
in order to develop
a coherent theory.
211
00:11:41,368 --> 00:11:45,937
This subject, I believe,
is destined to bring about
212
00:11:46,006 --> 00:11:48,073
a revolution in physics
and chemistry.
213
00:11:48,141 --> 00:11:52,911
EMERSON:
What made this new science
of air so revolutionary
214
00:11:52,979 --> 00:11:54,713
was that it threatened to topple
215
00:11:54,781 --> 00:11:57,282
the reigning theory
of chemistry,
216
00:11:57,350 --> 00:12:00,985
a theory inspired
by the mystery of fire.
217
00:12:01,054 --> 00:12:05,256
Most chemists believed fire
was due to some fiery principle
218
00:12:05,325 --> 00:12:08,293
that was given up
during combustion.
219
00:12:08,361 --> 00:12:11,262
And all our senses
seem to confirm this idea.
220
00:12:11,331 --> 00:12:16,801
Heat, light, smoke-- all are
released as the fire burns.
221
00:12:16,870 --> 00:12:18,536
By the mid-1700s,
222
00:12:18,605 --> 00:12:23,641
this essence of fire had been
given a name: phlogiston.
223
00:12:23,710 --> 00:12:26,978
Phlogiston was the foundation
of chemistry's leading theory
224
00:12:27,047 --> 00:12:28,980
for nearly a century,
225
00:12:29,049 --> 00:12:33,151
because it seemed to explain
things like metals and rust.
226
00:12:33,220 --> 00:12:36,788
When iron ore was heated
in the presence of charcoal,
227
00:12:36,857 --> 00:12:40,725
phlogiston from the charcoal
fused with the ore
228
00:12:40,794 --> 00:12:43,495
to form metallic iron.
229
00:12:43,563 --> 00:12:46,197
When the iron was exposed
to air or water,
230
00:12:46,266 --> 00:12:50,335
the metal released
its phlogiston as it rusted.
231
00:12:50,403 --> 00:12:52,904
Other metals went
through the same process,
232
00:12:52,973 --> 00:12:57,776
forming the green verdigris
of copper, for example.
233
00:12:57,844 --> 00:13:01,913
Ore plus phlogiston
equals metal.
234
00:13:01,982 --> 00:13:05,350
Metal minus phlogiston
equals rust,
235
00:13:05,418 --> 00:13:08,353
or what was then called
a "calx."
236
00:13:08,421 --> 00:13:10,021
ROCKE:
Only there was a problem:
237
00:13:10,090 --> 00:13:12,991
the calx was heavier
than the metal,
238
00:13:13,059 --> 00:13:15,760
even though phlogiston
had left the metal.
239
00:13:15,829 --> 00:13:17,529
It's lost something,
and yet it was heavier.
240
00:13:17,597 --> 00:13:20,165
The calx should weigh less
than the original metal,
241
00:13:20,233 --> 00:13:22,133
but it doesn't.
242
00:13:22,202 --> 00:13:23,968
The calx is heavier
than the metal.
243
00:13:24,037 --> 00:13:26,905
ROCKE:
Though many chemists were aware
of this contradiction,
244
00:13:26,973 --> 00:13:28,673
they let it pass
245
00:13:28,742 --> 00:13:32,143
because phlogiston otherwise
worked so well.
246
00:13:32,212 --> 00:13:35,213
But Lavoisier
was really troubled by this
247
00:13:35,282 --> 00:13:37,715
because he was obsessed
with the weights
248
00:13:37,784 --> 00:13:39,517
of his experimental ingredients.
249
00:13:39,586 --> 00:13:43,922
GREGORY PETSKO:
Lavoisier was very careful
to get very good instruments.
250
00:13:43,990 --> 00:13:46,157
He probably at one point
had the largest
251
00:13:46,226 --> 00:13:49,160
and most complete
private laboratory on earth.
252
00:13:49,229 --> 00:13:51,129
ANTOINE LAVOISIER:
With my precision scales,
253
00:13:51,198 --> 00:13:53,865
imported from England
at great expense,
254
00:13:53,934 --> 00:13:56,434
I measure the weight
of each substance
255
00:13:56,503 --> 00:13:59,037
at the beginning and end
of every chemical reaction.
256
00:13:59,105 --> 00:14:03,608
ROCKE:
Lavoisier was a master of this
balance sheet kind of chemistry.
257
00:14:03,677 --> 00:14:06,945
Remember, he was
a tax administrator by day.
258
00:14:07,013 --> 00:14:08,613
He knew a lot about accounting.
259
00:14:08,682 --> 00:14:10,248
And so this kind
of ledger-keeping
260
00:14:10,317 --> 00:14:12,517
was natural to him.
261
00:14:12,586 --> 00:14:14,786
ANTOINE LAVOISIER:
It is a fundamental truth
of chemistry
262
00:14:14,855 --> 00:14:17,355
that the same amount
of matter exists
263
00:14:17,424 --> 00:14:20,458
before and after
each experiment.
264
00:14:20,527 --> 00:14:24,696
Nothing new is created,
nothing lost.
265
00:14:24,764 --> 00:14:28,066
The whole art of performing
chemical experiments
266
00:14:28,134 --> 00:14:30,368
rests on this principle.
267
00:14:30,437 --> 00:14:35,807
EMERSON:
Today, we call this idea
the conservation of matter.
268
00:14:35,876 --> 00:14:38,776
MAUSKOPF:
When you carry out
a chemical reaction,
269
00:14:38,845 --> 00:14:43,548
what comes out has to be
exactly equal to what goes in.
270
00:14:43,617 --> 00:14:47,886
The total weight must remain
precisely the same.
271
00:14:47,954 --> 00:14:51,756
If not,
there's an error somewhere.
272
00:14:51,825 --> 00:14:55,894
ROCKE:
He wasn't the first to assume
conservation of matter,
273
00:14:55,962 --> 00:14:59,464
but Lavoisier applied this idea
more rigorously
274
00:14:59,532 --> 00:15:01,399
than anyone had before.
275
00:15:01,468 --> 00:15:04,836
And it worked very effectively
as a tool: a tool of discovery.
276
00:15:04,905 --> 00:15:08,373
EMERSON:
The power of Lavoisier's method
would become clear
277
00:15:08,441 --> 00:15:12,944
in October 1772, when he set out
to solve the riddle
278
00:15:13,013 --> 00:15:16,915
of why metals gain weight
when they form calxes.
279
00:15:16,983 --> 00:15:19,450
Common sense suggested
that when things rust,
280
00:15:19,519 --> 00:15:20,551
they must lose weight.
281
00:15:20,620 --> 00:15:21,819
They fall apart.
282
00:15:21,888 --> 00:15:23,388
They become brittle and weak.
283
00:15:23,456 --> 00:15:24,956
Lavoisier was interested
284
00:15:25,025 --> 00:15:26,591
in actually measuring
what happened.
285
00:15:26,660 --> 00:15:29,527
EMERSON:
He conducted his experiments
in public,
286
00:15:29,596 --> 00:15:32,363
relying on a huge burning lens
287
00:15:32,432 --> 00:15:36,634
that focused the sun's rays
to produce intense heat,
288
00:15:36,703 --> 00:15:40,471
while elegantly dressed
bystanders watched in amazement.
289
00:15:40,540 --> 00:15:44,809
Lavoisier placed a calx of lead,
mixed with charcoal,
290
00:15:44,878 --> 00:15:48,746
inside a glass vessel
partially filled with water,
291
00:15:48,815 --> 00:15:52,317
then subjected it to the intense
heat of the burning lens.
292
00:15:52,385 --> 00:15:55,320
The result was extraordinary.
293
00:15:55,388 --> 00:15:57,922
ANTOINE LAVOISIER:
As the calx changes
back into the metal,
294
00:15:57,991 --> 00:16:00,091
it releases a large quantity
of air.
295
00:16:00,160 --> 00:16:04,262
This air forms a volume
1,000 times greater
296
00:16:04,331 --> 00:16:06,331
than the calx it came from.
297
00:16:06,399 --> 00:16:08,666
EMERSON:
This startling finding suggested
298
00:16:08,735 --> 00:16:10,902
a radical idea.
299
00:16:10,971 --> 00:16:15,173
If air came out as the calx
changed back into a metal,
300
00:16:15,241 --> 00:16:18,643
could it have gone in
when the calx was formed?
301
00:16:18,712 --> 00:16:22,280
Could air be the reason calxes
were heavier than expected?
302
00:16:24,818 --> 00:16:28,519
Lavoisier also found that when
he burned elements like sulfur,
303
00:16:28,588 --> 00:16:31,656
they, too, gained weight.
304
00:16:31,725 --> 00:16:34,359
ANTOINE LAVOISIER:
There was then no doubt.
305
00:16:34,427 --> 00:16:36,928
I realized that the increase
in weight occurs
306
00:16:36,997 --> 00:16:38,930
because a portion of the air
is absorbed
307
00:16:38,999 --> 00:16:40,765
into the solid material.
308
00:16:40,834 --> 00:16:44,035
He knew he was onto something
very important.
309
00:16:44,104 --> 00:16:45,970
He knew that the element
310
00:16:46,039 --> 00:16:48,573
did not lose mass;
it gained mass.
311
00:16:48,641 --> 00:16:51,209
It took up some part of the air.
312
00:16:51,277 --> 00:16:55,013
I felt I must secure my right
to this important discovery.
313
00:16:55,081 --> 00:16:59,550
So I deposited a note
with le Secretaire de l'Academy
314
00:16:59,619 --> 00:17:00,885
to remain sealed
315
00:17:00,954 --> 00:17:03,821
until I was ready
to make my experiments public.
316
00:17:03,890 --> 00:17:08,059
He's discovered
what seems to be evidence
317
00:17:08,128 --> 00:17:12,497
by weighing things
that seem to flatly contradict
318
00:17:12,565 --> 00:17:15,566
what the phlogiston theory
is predicting.
319
00:17:15,635 --> 00:17:19,871
EMERSON:
Despite what our senses tell us,
both rusting and burning
320
00:17:19,939 --> 00:17:23,274
involve absorbing something
from the air--
321
00:17:23,343 --> 00:17:24,942
just the opposite
322
00:17:25,011 --> 00:17:27,478
of what chemistry's
reigning theory held.
323
00:17:27,547 --> 00:17:30,148
ROCKE:
It had been known for 100 years
324
00:17:30,216 --> 00:17:32,050
that metals gain weight
when they become calxes,
325
00:17:32,118 --> 00:17:35,686
but no one had bothered to
really investigate this anomaly.
326
00:17:35,755 --> 00:17:40,024
By focusing so intently
on weight,
327
00:17:40,093 --> 00:17:43,227
Lavoisier had challenged the
very foundation of chemistry.
328
00:17:43,296 --> 00:17:46,497
And he'd identified the source
of that weight gain.
329
00:17:46,566 --> 00:17:48,800
Air was somehow involved.
330
00:17:48,868 --> 00:17:53,738
EMERSON:
But was it air itself,
or some part of the air?
331
00:17:53,807 --> 00:17:56,274
And if so, what part?
332
00:17:56,342 --> 00:18:00,411
The identity of the mystery gas
eluded him for two years.
333
00:18:00,480 --> 00:18:02,447
(frustrated shout)
334
00:18:02,515 --> 00:18:06,584
EMERSON:
He was still stumped
in late 1774.
335
00:18:06,653 --> 00:18:10,488
But the answer
would soon be delivered
336
00:18:10,557 --> 00:18:13,357
by Joseph Priestley.
337
00:18:13,426 --> 00:18:16,761
By this time, Priestley had
begun to study something
338
00:18:16,830 --> 00:18:20,231
called the red calx of mercury.
339
00:18:20,300 --> 00:18:22,233
Mercury is a strange metal,
340
00:18:22,302 --> 00:18:26,270
one of just two elements that is
liquid at room temperature.
341
00:18:26,339 --> 00:18:29,574
But like other metals,
it forms a calx,
342
00:18:29,642 --> 00:18:33,177
a red solid that pharmacists
of the 1700s used
343
00:18:33,246 --> 00:18:36,180
to treat venereal disease.
344
00:18:36,249 --> 00:18:40,218
Chemists had noticed something
unusual about this calx.
345
00:18:40,286 --> 00:18:42,653
They could convert it
back into metallic mercury
346
00:18:42,722 --> 00:18:44,422
simply by heating it.
347
00:18:44,491 --> 00:18:46,991
No charcoal--
no source of phlogiston--
348
00:18:47,060 --> 00:18:48,092
was needed.
349
00:18:48,161 --> 00:18:50,895
This was theoretically
impossible.
350
00:18:50,964 --> 00:18:52,563
How could it be?
351
00:18:52,632 --> 00:18:56,067
The ever-curious Priestley
wanted to know,
352
00:18:56,136 --> 00:19:02,006
so in August 1774, he obtained
a sample of mercury calx
353
00:19:02,075 --> 00:19:06,210
and used his own burning lens
to heat it with sunlight.
354
00:19:11,217 --> 00:19:16,154
HOFFMANN:
That reddish substance
in turn decomposes,
355
00:19:16,222 --> 00:19:21,492
giving back mercury,
but also a gas.
356
00:19:21,561 --> 00:19:23,861
MAUSKOPF:
Priestley collects this air
357
00:19:23,930 --> 00:19:26,831
because he likes
to test these gases
358
00:19:26,900 --> 00:19:32,637
to see what properties
they have.
359
00:19:32,705 --> 00:19:35,840
EMERSON:
If it were his old friend
"fixed air,"
360
00:19:35,909 --> 00:19:38,843
the candle would go out.
361
00:19:38,912 --> 00:19:42,380
MAUSKOPF:
But what he found
about this air
362
00:19:42,448 --> 00:19:46,651
was that it had quite
extraordinary properties.
363
00:19:46,719 --> 00:19:49,420
What astounded me was that
the candle burned in this air
364
00:19:49,489 --> 00:19:52,256
with remarkable vigor.
365
00:19:52,325 --> 00:19:55,660
The flame was bigger and
brighter than in ordinary air.
366
00:19:55,728 --> 00:19:59,163
JOHNSON:
Something in this air seems
almost better than normal air,
367
00:19:59,232 --> 00:20:00,464
which is very puzzling.
368
00:20:07,273 --> 00:20:09,207
JOSEPH PRIESTLEY:
I was utterly at a loss.
369
00:20:09,275 --> 00:20:10,341
How could I explain this?
370
00:20:13,246 --> 00:20:17,648
(speaking French)
371
00:20:17,717 --> 00:20:20,384
Dr. Priestley, have you been
to the Continent before?
372
00:20:20,453 --> 00:20:22,920
No, this is my first time.
373
00:20:22,989 --> 00:20:26,057
EMERSON:
Two months later,
on a visit to Paris,
374
00:20:26,125 --> 00:20:28,426
Priestley was invited to dine
with members
375
00:20:28,494 --> 00:20:32,230
of the Royal Academy
of Sciences,
376
00:20:32,298 --> 00:20:34,799
including Antoine Lavoisier.
377
00:20:34,867 --> 00:20:37,335
J'ai récemment réalisé...
378
00:20:37,403 --> 00:20:41,505
MAUSKOPF:
Priestley tells Lavoisier
in his very broken French
379
00:20:41,574 --> 00:20:43,608
about his new discovery.
380
00:20:43,676 --> 00:20:49,714
...avec les résultats
tres intéressants.
381
00:20:49,782 --> 00:20:51,716
JOSEPH PRIESTLEY:
I described this experiment
382
00:20:51,784 --> 00:20:53,951
at the table
of Monsieur Lavoisier.
383
00:20:54,020 --> 00:20:56,454
I never make the least secret
of anything I do.
384
00:20:56,522 --> 00:20:59,690
...la meme aire
de plombe rouge.
385
00:20:59,759 --> 00:21:01,359
JOHNSON:
Everything that he came up with,
386
00:21:01,427 --> 00:21:03,995
every new experiment
that he did,
387
00:21:04,063 --> 00:21:05,863
even when he wasn't sure
what the results meant...
388
00:21:05,932 --> 00:21:07,398
Qu'est-ce que c'est
ce plombe rouge?
389
00:21:07,467 --> 00:21:09,767
...he was constantly
sharing that information
390
00:21:09,836 --> 00:21:11,135
with as many people as possible.
391
00:21:11,204 --> 00:21:15,306
Mais à ma grande surprise...
392
00:21:15,375 --> 00:21:19,176
PRIESTLEY:
I also told them that
it produced a kind of air
393
00:21:19,245 --> 00:21:23,114
in which a candle burned much
better than in common air.
394
00:21:23,182 --> 00:21:27,218
...mieux que dans l'air commun.
395
00:21:27,287 --> 00:21:31,656
(talking excitedly)
396
00:21:31,724 --> 00:21:33,791
JOSEPH PRIESTLEY:
At this, the entire company,
397
00:21:33,860 --> 00:21:35,760
including Monsieur
and Madame Lavoisier,
398
00:21:35,828 --> 00:21:37,495
expressed great surprise.
399
00:21:37,563 --> 00:21:41,999
I'm sure they cannot have
forgotten these events.
400
00:21:42,068 --> 00:21:44,302
Monsieur Priestley,
401
00:21:44,370 --> 00:21:46,470
etes-vous bien sûr que
ce n'était pas l'air fixe?
402
00:21:46,539 --> 00:21:49,206
If you want,
I can translate for you.
403
00:21:49,275 --> 00:21:50,641
Merci.
404
00:21:50,710 --> 00:21:52,910
Are you sure that what you found
was not fixed air?
405
00:21:52,979 --> 00:21:53,978
Absolutely.
406
00:21:54,047 --> 00:21:57,815
But I'm not yet sure
of what it was.
407
00:21:57,884 --> 00:22:02,219
MAUSKOPF:
Lavoisier did not appreciate
Priestley's style.
408
00:22:02,288 --> 00:22:04,522
He didn't think Priestley
brought very much thought
409
00:22:04,590 --> 00:22:07,191
to his scientific foraging.
410
00:22:07,260 --> 00:22:09,293
STEVEN JOHNSON:
But Lavoisier was smart enough
411
00:22:09,362 --> 00:22:11,462
to recognize that Priestley
was onto something
412
00:22:11,531 --> 00:22:12,663
and take that piece
of information
413
00:22:12,732 --> 00:22:14,065
and go back to his lab
414
00:22:14,133 --> 00:22:17,268
to figure out exactly what
Priestley had discovered.
415
00:22:17,337 --> 00:22:19,970
EMERSON:
Could this be the gas
he was looking for,
416
00:22:20,039 --> 00:22:22,873
the one involved
in rusting and burning?
417
00:22:22,942 --> 00:22:25,676
Lavoisier hurried
to the local apothecary
418
00:22:25,745 --> 00:22:29,880
to buy his own sample
of mercury calx.
419
00:22:29,949 --> 00:22:31,682
Back in England,
420
00:22:31,751 --> 00:22:36,821
Priestley dithered for months
on other projects,
421
00:22:36,889 --> 00:22:39,757
unaware he was in danger
of being scooped.
422
00:22:39,826 --> 00:22:41,826
Finally, it occurred to him:
423
00:22:41,894 --> 00:22:46,097
if this gas he had discovered
supports fire,
424
00:22:46,165 --> 00:22:49,800
might it also support breathing?
425
00:22:49,869 --> 00:22:51,836
JOHNSON:
Here we have one
of the great discoveries
426
00:22:51,904 --> 00:22:53,204
in the history of chemistry,
427
00:22:53,272 --> 00:22:55,072
and the scene
is kind of amazing.
428
00:22:55,141 --> 00:22:57,041
You've got this man and a mouse.
429
00:22:57,110 --> 00:23:00,344
JOSEPH PRIESTLEY:
I put a mouse
into a glass vessel
430
00:23:00,413 --> 00:23:04,615
containing two ounces of the air
from the heated calx of mercury.
431
00:23:04,684 --> 00:23:07,184
If it were common air,
a full-grown mouse
432
00:23:07,253 --> 00:23:09,920
would have survived in it
perhaps a quarter of an hour.
433
00:23:09,989 --> 00:23:13,090
(clock ticking)
434
00:23:13,159 --> 00:23:15,025
JOHNSON:
15 minutes pass...
435
00:23:17,096 --> 00:23:19,630
20 minutes pass...
436
00:23:22,468 --> 00:23:25,069
JOSEPH PRIESTLEY:
In this air,
my mouse remained
437
00:23:25,138 --> 00:23:27,471
perfectly at ease
for a full half-hour.
438
00:23:27,540 --> 00:23:30,975
JOHNSON:
That's twice as long
as any mouse has ever survived.
439
00:23:31,043 --> 00:23:34,845
JOSEPH PRIESTLEY:
I began to suspect that the air
into which I had put the mouse
440
00:23:34,914 --> 00:23:37,615
was better than common air.
441
00:23:37,683 --> 00:23:39,183
JOHNSON:
He takes the same mouse,
442
00:23:39,252 --> 00:23:41,118
sticks it back
under the glass,
443
00:23:41,187 --> 00:23:42,686
and sure enough,
the mouse survives
444
00:23:42,755 --> 00:23:45,689
another 30 minutes
in this strange new air.
445
00:23:45,758 --> 00:23:48,559
He realizes that something
fundamentally different
446
00:23:48,628 --> 00:23:49,927
has happened.
447
00:23:49,996 --> 00:23:53,364
This air is some kind
of super air.
448
00:23:53,433 --> 00:23:54,799
I concluded that this air
449
00:23:54,867 --> 00:23:57,601
was between five
and six times better--
450
00:23:57,670 --> 00:24:00,771
that is, more breathable--
451
00:24:00,840 --> 00:24:05,009
than the best common air
I'd ever tested.
452
00:24:05,077 --> 00:24:06,977
JOHNSON:
He finally has kind of
convinced himself
453
00:24:07,046 --> 00:24:10,247
this air must be safe to breathe
if the mouse is doing so well,
454
00:24:10,316 --> 00:24:12,116
and so he gets up enough courage
to actually try it himself.
455
00:24:12,185 --> 00:24:15,553
(inhales)
456
00:24:15,621 --> 00:24:18,422
(exhales)
457
00:24:18,491 --> 00:24:20,925
It doesn't feel any different
from common air
458
00:24:20,993 --> 00:24:22,960
when I breathe it in.
459
00:24:23,029 --> 00:24:28,532
But I feel peculiarly light
and easy.
460
00:24:28,601 --> 00:24:32,903
In time, this pure air
may be useful as a medicine
461
00:24:32,972 --> 00:24:36,307
or sold to the fashionable
for recreation.
462
00:24:36,375 --> 00:24:39,009
Up to now, only two mice and I
463
00:24:39,078 --> 00:24:41,679
have had the privilege
of breathing it.
464
00:24:41,747 --> 00:24:44,148
JOHNSON:
As Priestley is conducting
these experiments in England,
465
00:24:44,217 --> 00:24:46,984
across the channel, Lavoisier
is basically going through
466
00:24:47,053 --> 00:24:50,354
the exact same experiments.
467
00:24:50,423 --> 00:24:53,090
HOFFMANN:
Lavoisier, realizing
that this is essentially
468
00:24:53,159 --> 00:24:55,593
the key to the mystery,
gets to work on it.
469
00:24:59,432 --> 00:25:01,665
(both laughing excitedly)
470
00:25:01,734 --> 00:25:05,102
ANTOINE LAVOISIER:
I found, much to my surprise,
471
00:25:05,171 --> 00:25:08,739
that this air had none of the
properties of "fixed air."
472
00:25:08,808 --> 00:25:11,575
A candle burned in it
with a dazzling splendor,
473
00:25:11,644 --> 00:25:14,345
and charcoal,
instead of just smoldering,
474
00:25:14,413 --> 00:25:18,015
threw sparks
in every direction.
475
00:25:18,084 --> 00:25:19,583
(laughing)
476
00:25:27,527 --> 00:25:30,694
EMERSON:
Lavoisier announced his findings
with great fanfare
477
00:25:30,763 --> 00:25:35,533
at the 1775 Easter meeting
of the Academy of Sciences.
478
00:25:35,601 --> 00:25:37,768
ANTOINE LAVOISIER:
All this evidence convinced me
that this air
479
00:25:37,837 --> 00:25:40,504
is more...
480
00:25:40,573 --> 00:25:43,774
more breathable,
more combustible,
481
00:25:43,843 --> 00:25:47,444
and more pure than even
the common air in which we live.
482
00:25:47,513 --> 00:25:49,713
And he gives it
the name "oxygen."
483
00:25:49,782 --> 00:25:54,518
EMERSON:
In announcing his findings,
Lavoisier made no mention
484
00:25:54,587 --> 00:25:58,255
of Priestley's revelation
over dinner six months earlier.
485
00:25:58,324 --> 00:26:01,191
HOFFMANN:
Now, Priestley is not
a shrinking violet here.
486
00:26:01,260 --> 00:26:03,527
He hears about this
and he objects.
487
00:26:03,596 --> 00:26:05,229
He should have acknowledged
488
00:26:05,298 --> 00:26:08,599
that my account over dinner led
him to try the experiment.
489
00:26:08,668 --> 00:26:13,203
One should not put one's scythe
into another man's harvest.
490
00:26:13,272 --> 00:26:16,640
I admit I was not the first
to do these experiments.
491
00:26:16,709 --> 00:26:19,310
That claim goes
to Mr. Priestley.
492
00:26:19,378 --> 00:26:21,078
But from the results,
493
00:26:21,147 --> 00:26:24,181
we have drawn diametrically
opposite conclusions.
494
00:26:24,250 --> 00:26:27,451
I may be criticized for having
borrowed from the work
495
00:26:27,520 --> 00:26:29,787
of this celebrated philosopher,
496
00:26:29,855 --> 00:26:33,924
but I trust that the originality
of my conclusions
497
00:26:33,993 --> 00:26:35,693
will not be challenged.
498
00:26:39,098 --> 00:26:40,965
EMERSON:
Lavoisier was right.
499
00:26:41,033 --> 00:26:42,967
While it was Priestley
who made the discovery,
500
00:26:43,035 --> 00:26:44,335
it was Lavoisier
501
00:26:44,403 --> 00:26:48,606
who grasped the implications
of this new gas.
502
00:26:52,244 --> 00:26:54,278
HOFFMANN:
Lavoisier was the only one
503
00:26:54,347 --> 00:26:56,814
who understood
what was going on.
504
00:26:56,882 --> 00:26:58,983
Perhaps he didn't understand
perfectly,
505
00:26:59,051 --> 00:27:00,784
but the moment that new element,
506
00:27:00,853 --> 00:27:04,521
which we call oxygen,
was there,
507
00:27:04,590 --> 00:27:07,992
he picks it up
and he runs with it.
508
00:27:11,297 --> 00:27:13,530
EMERSON:
Over the next 15 years,
509
00:27:13,599 --> 00:27:16,600
Lavoisier would show that air
is not a simple substance,
510
00:27:16,669 --> 00:27:18,469
as the ancients believed,
511
00:27:18,537 --> 00:27:22,539
but a mixture of two
newly discovered gases.
512
00:27:22,608 --> 00:27:26,610
That water, too,
was a product of two gases.
513
00:27:26,679 --> 00:27:29,813
And that fire
is not an element,
514
00:27:29,882 --> 00:27:34,051
but a process
of combining with oxygen.
515
00:27:34,120 --> 00:27:36,353
Even the solid substances
516
00:27:36,422 --> 00:27:38,822
the ancients had lumped
under the heading "earth"
517
00:27:38,891 --> 00:27:41,792
were now seen in a new way.
518
00:27:41,861 --> 00:27:43,894
ROCKE:
Metals like iron
and tin and lead
519
00:27:43,963 --> 00:27:45,796
had been known for centuries.
520
00:27:45,865 --> 00:27:47,765
But in the era of phlogiston,
521
00:27:47,833 --> 00:27:49,400
they were thought to be
compounds
522
00:27:49,468 --> 00:27:51,502
because they had phlogiston
in them.
523
00:27:51,570 --> 00:27:54,238
Lavoisier had turned
this picture upside down.
524
00:27:54,306 --> 00:27:58,409
He showed that by stripping away
the oxygen from the ore,
525
00:27:58,477 --> 00:28:00,844
you got down
to the simpler metal within.
526
00:28:00,913 --> 00:28:04,248
The metal, not the ore,
was the element.
527
00:28:04,316 --> 00:28:07,851
EMERSON:
So all four
of the ancient elements--
528
00:28:07,920 --> 00:28:10,621
air, water, earth and fire--
529
00:28:10,690 --> 00:28:15,159
had been abolished, thanks
to the discovery of oxygen.
530
00:28:15,227 --> 00:28:18,028
ANTOINE LAVOISIER:
Once you accept
the existence of oxygen,
531
00:28:18,097 --> 00:28:22,399
the main difficulties of
chemistry appear to evaporate.
532
00:28:22,468 --> 00:28:28,172
Well, if all of chemistry can be
explained without phlogiston,
533
00:28:28,240 --> 00:28:32,409
in all likelihood,
it doesn't exist.
534
00:28:32,478 --> 00:28:36,914
EMERSON:
For years, many chemists,
including Joseph Priestley,
535
00:28:36,982 --> 00:28:39,683
refused to abandon
the old theory.
536
00:28:39,752 --> 00:28:42,319
What finally won the day
537
00:28:42,388 --> 00:28:45,789
was the textbook Lavoisier wrote
in 1789
538
00:28:45,858 --> 00:28:48,892
to spread his new
chemical theory.
539
00:28:48,961 --> 00:28:51,128
As it was adopted
around the world,
540
00:28:51,197 --> 00:28:54,898
phlogiston quietly passed
into history.
541
00:28:54,967 --> 00:29:01,305
So the old chemical system
has been essentially destroyed.
542
00:29:01,373 --> 00:29:06,043
EMERSON:
Though Lavoisier is often given
most of the credit,
543
00:29:06,112 --> 00:29:09,446
it was really both these men,
544
00:29:09,515 --> 00:29:11,882
working in their very
different ways,
545
00:29:11,951 --> 00:29:14,284
who brought about
this chemical revolution.
546
00:29:14,353 --> 00:29:16,787
JOHNSON:
They kind of needed each other
in a way.
547
00:29:16,856 --> 00:29:19,056
For science to work, you need
both kinds of scientists, right?
548
00:29:19,125 --> 00:29:21,125
You need the scientists
who are great systematizers,
549
00:29:21,193 --> 00:29:23,560
and then you need the mavericks
and the tinkerers
550
00:29:23,629 --> 00:29:26,497
who are going to open up
new doors for discovery.
551
00:29:26,565 --> 00:29:29,800
EMERSON:
One of the doors Priestley
and Lavoisier opened
552
00:29:29,869 --> 00:29:32,803
was a fresh way
to tackle that old question:
553
00:29:32,872 --> 00:29:35,472
what is the world made of?
554
00:29:35,541 --> 00:29:39,176
It was clear now that rocks
of every conceivable variety
555
00:29:39,245 --> 00:29:42,079
might harbor
undiscovered elements
556
00:29:42,148 --> 00:29:44,948
chemically fused with oxygen.
557
00:29:45,017 --> 00:29:46,517
PETSKO:
People realized
558
00:29:46,585 --> 00:29:49,319
that if they could release
oxygen from other substances,
559
00:29:49,388 --> 00:29:52,923
what was left behind might be
some of these missing elements
560
00:29:52,992 --> 00:29:54,925
that everybody knew
must be out there.
561
00:29:54,994 --> 00:29:57,694
How many more elements
might you find
562
00:29:57,763 --> 00:29:59,530
by stripping away the oxygen
563
00:29:59,598 --> 00:30:02,399
that liked to bind
to so many things?
564
00:30:02,468 --> 00:30:03,834
EMERSON:
Lavoisier's textbook
565
00:30:03,903 --> 00:30:06,970
included the first modern list
of elements:
566
00:30:07,039 --> 00:30:10,541
33 "simple substances."
567
00:30:10,609 --> 00:30:13,243
Some, including light and heat,
568
00:30:13,312 --> 00:30:15,679
were later found
not to be elements.
569
00:30:15,748 --> 00:30:17,414
But it was a start,
570
00:30:17,483 --> 00:30:20,517
and it served as a challenge
to other chemists.
571
00:30:20,586 --> 00:30:22,419
Now that they knew
how to look for them,
572
00:30:22,488 --> 00:30:25,322
chemists began to ask,
"What are the elements?"
573
00:30:25,391 --> 00:30:27,457
The question had never
been asked before
574
00:30:27,526 --> 00:30:29,426
in exactly that way.
575
00:30:29,495 --> 00:30:32,396
And so the discovery of oxygen
really served as a starting gun
576
00:30:32,464 --> 00:30:36,066
for a worldwide race
for new elements.
577
00:30:36,135 --> 00:30:40,437
All over the world,
chemists and amateur collectors
578
00:30:40,506 --> 00:30:42,706
responded to Lavoisier's
challenge,
579
00:30:42,775 --> 00:30:46,410
rapidly identifying
15 new elements.
580
00:30:46,478 --> 00:30:50,147
From Sweden to Mexico,
Connecticut to Siberia,
581
00:30:50,216 --> 00:30:52,015
the discoveries kept coming,
582
00:30:52,084 --> 00:30:54,685
sometimes as many as four
in a single year.
583
00:30:54,753 --> 00:30:57,721
And few things could bring
a chemist more glory
584
00:30:57,790 --> 00:30:59,957
than identifying a new element.
585
00:31:00,025 --> 00:31:04,228
Well, certainly, Lavoisier was
one of the great, great masters
586
00:31:04,296 --> 00:31:05,395
of all time.
587
00:31:05,464 --> 00:31:06,930
In fact...
588
00:31:06,999 --> 00:31:10,467
EMERSON:
One of those who would soon
be caught up in the hunt
589
00:31:10,536 --> 00:31:12,936
was a precocious chemist from
the farthest reaches of England.
590
00:31:13,005 --> 00:31:16,273
...pathetic ideas
of phlogiston, huh?
591
00:31:16,342 --> 00:31:18,208
I've just met
a remarkable young man
592
00:31:18,277 --> 00:31:20,210
whose talents
I can only marvel at.
593
00:31:20,279 --> 00:31:21,879
He's not even 21
594
00:31:21,947 --> 00:31:24,181
and has been studying chemistry
for no more than 18 months,
595
00:31:24,250 --> 00:31:26,383
but he's advanced
with such strides
596
00:31:26,452 --> 00:31:27,885
as to overtake everybody.
597
00:31:27,953 --> 00:31:31,355
His name is Davy,
the young chemist.
598
00:31:31,423 --> 00:31:34,858
The young everything.
599
00:31:34,927 --> 00:31:39,162
EMERSON:
Humphry Davy was the son
of a simple wood carver
600
00:31:39,231 --> 00:31:41,265
from the remote seaside village
of Penzance,
601
00:31:41,333 --> 00:31:43,734
about a week from London
by stagecoach.
602
00:31:43,802 --> 00:31:48,071
DAVID KNIGHT:
Penzance is right down in the
far southwest corner of England,
603
00:31:48,140 --> 00:31:50,173
and in some sense,
it was the Wild West,
604
00:31:50,242 --> 00:31:54,344
right out beyond the influence
of London and its institutions.
605
00:31:54,413 --> 00:31:58,849
EMERSON:
When his father died young,
Humphry left school at 16
606
00:31:58,918 --> 00:32:01,251
and took a job
as an apothecary's apprentice
607
00:32:01,320 --> 00:32:03,253
to support the family.
608
00:32:03,322 --> 00:32:05,622
But he never lost his love
of learning.
609
00:32:05,691 --> 00:32:10,060
He simply resolved
to teach himself.
610
00:32:10,129 --> 00:32:11,995
The same year
that Davy's father dies,
611
00:32:12,064 --> 00:32:14,531
Lavoisier publishes
612
00:32:14,600 --> 00:32:17,534
his Elementary Treatise
on Chemistry.
613
00:32:17,603 --> 00:32:20,470
And young Davy reads this
in the original French.
614
00:32:20,539 --> 00:32:23,340
He starts keeping notebooks
from this very date.
615
00:32:23,409 --> 00:32:25,909
And there's a kind of
intellectual explosion.
616
00:32:25,978 --> 00:32:30,147
HUMPHRY DAVY:
Chemistry arose
from the delusions of alchemy,
617
00:32:30,215 --> 00:32:34,284
only to be bound by the chains
of phlogiston.
618
00:32:34,353 --> 00:32:38,922
But through the discoveries of
Black, Priestley and Lavoisier,
619
00:32:38,991 --> 00:32:41,792
it has now been liberated!
620
00:32:41,860 --> 00:32:44,561
KNIGHT:
Davy started doing experiments
right away.
621
00:32:44,630 --> 00:32:46,163
One of the things he did
622
00:32:46,231 --> 00:32:48,498
was to attack Lavoisier's
theory of heat.
623
00:32:48,567 --> 00:32:52,703
Lavoisier said it was a material
substance called calorique.
624
00:32:52,771 --> 00:32:55,238
And Davy didn't believe this.
625
00:32:55,307 --> 00:32:57,040
Davy thought he could take on
the great man.
626
00:32:57,109 --> 00:32:59,977
He thought heat
was motion of particles.
627
00:33:00,045 --> 00:33:02,312
And he thought
he could prove this
628
00:33:02,381 --> 00:33:05,349
if he could rub two pieces
of ice together--
629
00:33:05,417 --> 00:33:07,951
so no heat would be coming in
from outside--
630
00:33:08,020 --> 00:33:11,188
and the sheer friction
would melt the blocks of ice.
631
00:33:11,256 --> 00:33:13,290
And that's what happened.
632
00:33:13,359 --> 00:33:14,992
To him and his contemporaries,
633
00:33:15,060 --> 00:33:17,060
the experiment
was a convincing one.
634
00:33:17,129 --> 00:33:21,531
EMERSON:
Davy's findings, written up
in his first published work,
635
00:33:21,600 --> 00:33:24,768
showed enough promise
to land him a post
636
00:33:24,837 --> 00:33:27,104
closer to Britain's
center of action,
637
00:33:27,172 --> 00:33:30,607
in Bristol,
at the Pneumatic Institution.
638
00:33:30,676 --> 00:33:33,276
HOLMES:
So he leaves remote Penzance
639
00:33:33,345 --> 00:33:35,846
to become the assistant
and then the director
640
00:33:35,914 --> 00:33:37,147
of this new institute.
641
00:33:37,216 --> 00:33:38,982
He's only 19, for heaven's sake.
642
00:33:39,051 --> 00:33:42,886
EMERSON:
The institution had been founded
in the hope
643
00:33:42,955 --> 00:33:44,021
that some of the gases
644
00:33:44,089 --> 00:33:45,455
discovered by Priestley
and others
645
00:33:45,524 --> 00:33:49,393
would prove useful
in treating diseases.
646
00:33:49,461 --> 00:33:54,531
Davy's job was to make the gases
and then test them.
647
00:33:54,600 --> 00:33:56,900
I took just three breaths
of the gas.
648
00:33:56,969 --> 00:33:59,002
The first produced
a feeling of numbness.
649
00:33:59,071 --> 00:34:02,572
EMERSON:
One of the gases he tested
was mostly carbon monoxide,
650
00:34:02,641 --> 00:34:06,109
the poisonous gas now found
in auto exhaust.
651
00:34:06,178 --> 00:34:08,578
HOLMES:
He doesn't know exactly
what it is, but he makes it.
652
00:34:08,647 --> 00:34:11,715
And he tests everything
on himself.
653
00:34:11,784 --> 00:34:15,986
It's amazingly reckless,
but it's also very brave.
654
00:34:16,055 --> 00:34:19,189
JOSEPH COTTLE:
He acted as if
in sacrificing one life,
655
00:34:19,258 --> 00:34:23,360
he had two or three others
in reserve.
656
00:34:23,429 --> 00:34:24,528
Some days, I half despaired
657
00:34:24,596 --> 00:34:26,163
of seeing him alive
the next morning.
658
00:34:26,231 --> 00:34:31,234
HOLMES:
And then he takes his pulse
and he says,
659
00:34:31,303 --> 00:34:34,771
"I do not think I shall die."
660
00:34:34,840 --> 00:34:39,276
And he's ill for 48 hours,
but he survives.
661
00:34:39,344 --> 00:34:41,912
On a number of occasions,
he does nearly kill himself.
662
00:34:41,980 --> 00:34:44,147
When you've got a career to make
663
00:34:44,216 --> 00:34:47,584
and you're coming from a low
point down the social scale
664
00:34:47,653 --> 00:34:49,386
and you've got a long way to go,
665
00:34:49,455 --> 00:34:55,392
why not take a few risks, get
your way up to the top quicker?
666
00:34:55,461 --> 00:35:00,897
EMERSON:
The top Davy had in mind was
the very pinnacle of science.
667
00:35:00,966 --> 00:35:04,634
On one page of his Bristol
notebooks, he wrote his own name
668
00:35:04,703 --> 00:35:08,839
next to that of the most famous
British scientist of all time.
669
00:35:08,907 --> 00:35:11,141
Newton and Davy.
670
00:35:11,210 --> 00:35:13,677
So he has this sense
that he and Newton
671
00:35:13,745 --> 00:35:15,912
can go at science together.
672
00:35:15,981 --> 00:35:17,747
It's not arrogance exactly.
673
00:35:17,816 --> 00:35:19,349
It's this tremendous drive,
674
00:35:19,418 --> 00:35:23,253
and he passionately believes
that he will be
675
00:35:23,322 --> 00:35:26,089
a sort of Newton in chemistry.
676
00:35:26,158 --> 00:35:27,424
I don't hesitate at all.
677
00:35:27,493 --> 00:35:29,092
The great master
made a few mistakes.
678
00:35:29,161 --> 00:35:32,462
HOLMES:
All his life, that drive
is there: Newton and Davy.
679
00:35:32,531 --> 00:35:35,532
EMERSON:
In Bristol, Davy sought out
a group of literary men
680
00:35:35,601 --> 00:35:38,168
whose work would define
the Romantic Age,
681
00:35:38,237 --> 00:35:41,171
including publisher
Joseph Cottle
682
00:35:41,240 --> 00:35:46,877
and poets Robert Southey
and Samuel Taylor Coleridge.
683
00:35:46,945 --> 00:35:49,045
...the assumption that heat
is a simple substance.
684
00:35:49,114 --> 00:35:51,615
Is that what he called caloric?
685
00:35:51,683 --> 00:35:52,883
Precisely.
686
00:35:52,951 --> 00:35:54,684
HOLMES:
In looking at that group
in Bristol,
687
00:35:54,753 --> 00:35:56,486
one of the things
I think is wonderful
688
00:35:56,555 --> 00:35:57,988
is there was no gap
689
00:35:58,056 --> 00:35:59,923
between the writers and the
poets and the scientists.
690
00:35:59,992 --> 00:36:03,793
We can discover that the ice
melts by friction alone.
691
00:36:03,862 --> 00:36:05,662
Davy, could not the melting
have been caused
692
00:36:05,731 --> 00:36:07,063
by the temperature
of the room?
693
00:36:07,132 --> 00:36:09,332
That's a very good question,
indeed--
694
00:36:09,401 --> 00:36:11,101
one to which I have
a ready answer.
695
00:36:11,170 --> 00:36:13,270
HOLMES:
Every evening,
they're going out,
696
00:36:13,338 --> 00:36:15,839
writing letters to each other,
going on walks together.
697
00:36:15,908 --> 00:36:17,407
And they are young men
with a future.
698
00:36:17,476 --> 00:36:19,442
It's an extraordinary group.
699
00:36:19,511 --> 00:36:25,382
EMERSON:
In Davy, these Romantic poets
found a kindred spirit:
700
00:36:25,450 --> 00:36:29,419
a scientist who shared
their sense of wonder at nature
701
00:36:29,488 --> 00:36:33,456
and yearned to reveal
her mysterious ways.
702
00:36:33,525 --> 00:36:37,627
Heat must, in fact,
be the motion of particles.
703
00:36:37,696 --> 00:36:41,064
There's an energy,
an elasticity in his mind
704
00:36:41,133 --> 00:36:45,368
that allows him to seize on
and analyze all subjects.
705
00:36:45,437 --> 00:36:49,172
Living thoughts spring up
like turf under his feet.
706
00:36:52,077 --> 00:36:53,710
EMERSON:
Early in his research,
707
00:36:53,779 --> 00:36:56,413
Davy produced a gas
one medical authority had warned
708
00:36:56,481 --> 00:37:01,418
was the cause
of terrible diseases.
709
00:37:01,486 --> 00:37:02,485
He tried it anyway.
710
00:37:03,789 --> 00:37:05,388
HUMPHRY DAVY:
This evening,
711
00:37:05,457 --> 00:37:07,490
I breathed nitrous oxide
712
00:37:07,559 --> 00:37:11,828
and experienced a... thrilling
all over me
713
00:37:11,897 --> 00:37:15,799
more pleasurable than anything
I have ever experienced.
714
00:37:15,867 --> 00:37:19,202
The objects around me
became dazzling
715
00:37:19,271 --> 00:37:21,204
and my hearing more acute.
716
00:37:23,875 --> 00:37:26,209
Sometimes I responded
by stamping my feet.
717
00:37:26,278 --> 00:37:30,513
(stomping)
718
00:37:30,582 --> 00:37:33,383
Other times by dancing
around the room
719
00:37:33,452 --> 00:37:35,318
and laughing uncontrollably.
720
00:37:35,387 --> 00:37:37,687
(laughing)
721
00:37:40,359 --> 00:37:44,327
EMERSON:
As word of his discovery spread,
many others,
722
00:37:44,396 --> 00:37:46,229
from steam engine pioneer
James Watt
723
00:37:46,298 --> 00:37:48,398
to the king's own doctor,
724
00:37:48,467 --> 00:37:51,368
clamored to try Davy's
"laughing gas."
725
00:37:51,436 --> 00:37:55,772
KNIGHT:
Coleridge and Southey
both took doses of the gas.
726
00:37:55,841 --> 00:37:59,409
It was very much in keeping
with this Romantic time period.
727
00:37:59,478 --> 00:38:03,179
ROBERT SOUTHEY:
He's invented
a whole new pleasure.
728
00:38:03,248 --> 00:38:07,284
It makes you laugh and tingle
in every toe and fingertip.
729
00:38:07,352 --> 00:38:09,486
KNIGHT:
There was a certain amount
of recklessness,
730
00:38:09,554 --> 00:38:11,421
experimenting with drugs.
731
00:38:11,490 --> 00:38:14,057
Why not expand
your consciousness?
732
00:38:14,126 --> 00:38:16,226
ROBERT SOUTHEY:
It makes you strong and happy!
733
00:38:16,295 --> 00:38:18,828
So gloriously happy!
734
00:38:18,897 --> 00:38:20,730
(laughing)
735
00:38:20,799 --> 00:38:22,098
Oh, excellent airbag.
736
00:38:22,167 --> 00:38:24,501
(laughing continues)
737
00:38:24,569 --> 00:38:26,903
I'm going for more this evening.
738
00:38:26,972 --> 00:38:31,207
EMERSON:
Davy asked each of his subjects
to record their impressions.
739
00:38:31,276 --> 00:38:34,377
SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE:
The first time I tried
nitrous oxide,
740
00:38:34,446 --> 00:38:37,180
I felt a highly pleasurable
sensation of warmth
741
00:38:37,249 --> 00:38:38,581
over my whole body.
742
00:38:38,650 --> 00:38:41,718
It was like the feeling
I once experienced
743
00:38:41,787 --> 00:38:43,520
entering a warm room
744
00:38:43,588 --> 00:38:45,288
after returning from a walk
in the snow.
745
00:38:45,357 --> 00:38:47,657
I felt no desire to move,
746
00:38:47,726 --> 00:38:53,229
only to laugh at those
who were looking at me.
747
00:38:53,298 --> 00:38:58,535
(laughing)
748
00:39:05,844 --> 00:39:09,746
EMERSON:
Davy wrote up their accounts in
his first true scientific book.
749
00:39:09,815 --> 00:39:12,782
But just as he was finishing
the book,
750
00:39:12,851 --> 00:39:15,952
Davy's attention was diverted
by a discovery
751
00:39:16,021 --> 00:39:19,255
that would shake the very
foundations of science.
752
00:39:19,324 --> 00:39:23,727
In 1800, an Italian named
Alessandro Volta
753
00:39:23,795 --> 00:39:28,465
announced that he had created
a new source of electricity.
754
00:39:28,533 --> 00:39:32,335
Up to then, the only sources of
electricity had been lightning,
755
00:39:32,404 --> 00:39:34,971
which was very difficult to tap,
756
00:39:35,040 --> 00:39:38,608
and electrostatic devices like
the ones Priestley had used.
757
00:39:38,677 --> 00:39:41,911
KNIGHT:
You could get
quite spectacular effects
758
00:39:41,980 --> 00:39:43,980
in the way of flashes and bangs,
759
00:39:44,049 --> 00:39:46,916
but you couldn't get
sustained power.
760
00:39:46,985 --> 00:39:50,987
What Volta did was to establish
that electricity
761
00:39:51,056 --> 00:39:54,557
was something that you could
make a steady supply of:
762
00:39:54,626 --> 00:39:56,826
what we call
an electric current.
763
00:39:56,895 --> 00:39:59,529
Volta's device
was incredibly simple:
764
00:39:59,598 --> 00:40:02,632
a sandwich of alternating
copper and zinc disks,
765
00:40:02,701 --> 00:40:05,034
separated by pieces of cardboard
766
00:40:05,103 --> 00:40:07,604
that had been soaked
in salt water.
767
00:40:07,672 --> 00:40:11,307
But this "voltaic pile,"
the first battery,
768
00:40:11,376 --> 00:40:13,209
electrified the world
of science.
769
00:40:13,278 --> 00:40:16,880
With the battery, you could now
perform a variety of experiments
770
00:40:16,948 --> 00:40:19,149
that had never been possible
before.
771
00:40:19,217 --> 00:40:21,518
And these experiments
were done immediately.
772
00:40:21,586 --> 00:40:24,387
Just weeks after learning
of Volta's discovery,
773
00:40:24,456 --> 00:40:27,991
two British scientists used
a crude battery like this one
774
00:40:28,059 --> 00:40:30,560
to split water
into its two elements:
775
00:40:30,629 --> 00:40:33,096
hydrogen and oxygen.
776
00:40:33,165 --> 00:40:34,898
KNIGHT:
The electric current was somehow
777
00:40:34,966 --> 00:40:39,169
breaking up the water
into its components.
778
00:40:39,237 --> 00:40:41,070
Even more surprising,
779
00:40:41,139 --> 00:40:44,674
the hydrogen collected at the
negative electrode over here...
780
00:40:47,679 --> 00:40:51,714
And the oxygen collected at the
positive electrode over here.
781
00:40:55,353 --> 00:40:57,954
Why would these two elements
show a preference
782
00:40:58,023 --> 00:41:00,056
for opposite electrical charges?
783
00:41:00,125 --> 00:41:04,327
EMERSON:
Intrigued, Davy set aside
his research on gases,
784
00:41:04,396 --> 00:41:06,930
built a voltaic pile
785
00:41:06,998 --> 00:41:10,567
and began doing his own
experiments on electricity.
786
00:41:10,635 --> 00:41:14,037
KNIGHT:
And it became Davy's
big pursuit in life.
787
00:41:14,105 --> 00:41:17,240
What could this
electric current do?
788
00:41:17,309 --> 00:41:19,609
HUMPHRY DAVY:
Volta has given us a key
789
00:41:19,678 --> 00:41:22,612
to some of the most mysterious
recesses of nature.
790
00:41:22,681 --> 00:41:25,281
Till this discovery,
our tools were limited.
791
00:41:25,350 --> 00:41:28,685
Now the possibilities
for chemistry seem boundless.
792
00:41:28,753 --> 00:41:33,356
It's like an undiscovered
country-- a land of promise.
793
00:41:33,425 --> 00:41:38,027
EMERSON:
Davy had just begun
to explore that land
794
00:41:38,096 --> 00:41:40,497
when opportunity knocked.
795
00:41:40,565 --> 00:41:43,833
His book on nitrous oxide
had caught the attention
796
00:41:43,902 --> 00:41:47,971
of the founders of the new
Royal Institution in London,
797
00:41:48,039 --> 00:41:53,243
who were looking for a director
for their chemistry laboratory.
798
00:41:53,311 --> 00:41:56,746
And that book had such impact
that it was read in London,
799
00:41:56,815 --> 00:41:58,248
here at the Royal Institution.
800
00:41:58,316 --> 00:41:59,883
It's very, very precise.
801
00:41:59,951 --> 00:42:01,384
It's measured.
802
00:42:01,453 --> 00:42:02,986
It's quantitative science.
803
00:42:03,054 --> 00:42:04,921
And they thought,
"This is the man we must get."
804
00:42:04,990 --> 00:42:11,227
EMERSON:
Still only 22, Davy set out
on his next great adventure,
805
00:42:11,296 --> 00:42:14,898
leaving Bristol in 1801
for the city he called
806
00:42:14,966 --> 00:42:18,568
"the great hot-bed
of human power."
807
00:42:18,637 --> 00:42:20,169
KNIGHT:
When Davy arrived,
808
00:42:20,238 --> 00:42:22,438
his patrons seem to have been
a bit taken aback
809
00:42:22,507 --> 00:42:26,776
to find this still rather raw
country youth.
810
00:42:26,845 --> 00:42:30,246
But his natural eloquence
must have come through
811
00:42:30,315 --> 00:42:32,682
and eventually charmed them.
812
00:42:32,751 --> 00:42:35,184
EMERSON:
One of the missions
of the institution
813
00:42:35,253 --> 00:42:38,421
was to offer public lectures
meant to stimulate
814
00:42:38,490 --> 00:42:42,091
an interest in science
among the London elite.
815
00:42:42,160 --> 00:42:44,794
For this purpose,
a theater had been installed
816
00:42:44,863 --> 00:42:48,464
in the institution's building
on Albemarle Street.
817
00:42:48,533 --> 00:42:51,467
Davy started out
as assistant lecturer,
818
00:42:51,536 --> 00:42:54,370
seen here helping his boss
give a dose of laughing gas
819
00:42:54,439 --> 00:42:56,139
to one of the patrons.
820
00:42:56,207 --> 00:42:58,608
But with audiences shrinking
821
00:42:58,677 --> 00:43:01,010
and the institution's
fortunes flagging,
822
00:43:01,079 --> 00:43:04,647
Davy was quickly promoted
to the top job.
823
00:43:04,716 --> 00:43:09,185
Nothing is so fatal to the
progress of the human mind...
824
00:43:09,254 --> 00:43:11,955
EMERSON:
Determined to make the most
of this opportunity,
825
00:43:12,023 --> 00:43:15,592
he set out to make each lecture
seem spontaneous.
826
00:43:15,660 --> 00:43:17,660
But to do spontaneous,
827
00:43:17,729 --> 00:43:19,329
what he did was prepare,
prepare.
828
00:43:19,397 --> 00:43:27,437
...as to suppose that there are
no new mysteries left in nature.
829
00:43:27,505 --> 00:43:29,238
HOLMES:
He would read through,
in front of his assistants,
830
00:43:29,307 --> 00:43:30,807
drafts of the lecture
to see if it worked.
831
00:43:30,875 --> 00:43:33,309
DAVY:
Who would not
want to learn
832
00:43:33,378 --> 00:43:35,445
the most profound secrets
of nature?
833
00:43:35,513 --> 00:43:39,949
To ascertain her hidden
operations?
834
00:43:40,018 --> 00:43:42,218
The moment Davy
began to lecture,
835
00:43:42,287 --> 00:43:45,154
the audiences packed in.
836
00:43:45,223 --> 00:43:47,423
DAVY:
Science has done much for man,
837
00:43:47,492 --> 00:43:53,029
but it is capable
of doing still more.
838
00:43:53,098 --> 00:43:57,900
He had people absolutely lapping
up what he was pouring out.
839
00:43:57,969 --> 00:43:59,836
EMERSON:
There were other chemists
840
00:43:59,904 --> 00:44:02,138
giving public talks elsewhere
in London,
841
00:44:02,207 --> 00:44:05,074
but none held a candle to Davy.
842
00:44:05,143 --> 00:44:07,243
He must have directed his
bright eyes around his audience
843
00:44:07,312 --> 00:44:10,480
so that they felt really
drawn in and mesmerized.
844
00:44:10,548 --> 00:44:13,683
And he would do
dazzling experiments
845
00:44:13,752 --> 00:44:17,153
that he carefully rehearsed with
his assistants the night before,
846
00:44:17,222 --> 00:44:18,888
so they always worked.
847
00:44:18,957 --> 00:44:23,359
HOLMES:
And people gasp,
and they cheer and they clap
848
00:44:23,428 --> 00:44:25,728
at the end
of a demonstration.
849
00:44:25,797 --> 00:44:27,830
It's so brilliantly done.
850
00:44:27,899 --> 00:44:30,900
And these lectures became
hugely popular,
851
00:44:30,969 --> 00:44:32,635
and there were the most terrible
traffic jams
852
00:44:32,704 --> 00:44:34,704
outside the Royal Institution.
853
00:44:34,773 --> 00:44:39,275
Albemarle Street became the
first one-way street in London
854
00:44:39,344 --> 00:44:41,778
because there were
so many carriages
855
00:44:41,846 --> 00:44:44,113
bringing people to listen
to his lectures.
856
00:44:44,182 --> 00:44:46,115
He was young,
he was handsome,
857
00:44:46,184 --> 00:44:47,550
he was eloquent.
858
00:44:47,619 --> 00:44:51,020
And there were a number
of young ladies in the audience.
859
00:44:51,089 --> 00:44:53,122
HOLMES:
And they're all in the
front rows making notes,
860
00:44:53,191 --> 00:44:56,259
but hanging on Davy's
every word.
861
00:44:56,327 --> 00:45:00,129
Among the lecture notes
in the Royal Institution archive
862
00:45:00,198 --> 00:45:02,365
are these little billets-doux,
little love letters,
863
00:45:02,434 --> 00:45:05,668
often signed with a pseudonym,
and poems to him.
864
00:45:05,737 --> 00:45:09,839
EMERSON:
One of his female admirers
invited him to dinner, noting,
865
00:45:09,908 --> 00:45:16,045
"Those eyes are too fine to be
forever gazing over crucibles."
866
00:45:16,114 --> 00:45:20,183
I have audiences
of 400 or 500 people,
867
00:45:20,251 --> 00:45:23,920
many of high rank,
and I suspect that some of them
868
00:45:23,988 --> 00:45:28,624
may become permanently
interested in chemistry.
869
00:45:28,693 --> 00:45:32,295
This science is becoming
the fashion of the day.
870
00:45:32,363 --> 00:45:35,665
EMERSON:
Davy's success as a lecturer
and entertainer
871
00:45:35,734 --> 00:45:38,801
brought him wealth, prizes
and acclaim.
872
00:45:38,870 --> 00:45:41,471
But he was growing impatient.
873
00:45:41,539 --> 00:45:43,005
Giving popular lectures
874
00:45:43,074 --> 00:45:45,541
was no way to become
the Newton of chemistry.
875
00:45:45,610 --> 00:45:49,312
By 1806, he had established
enough of a reputation,
876
00:45:49,380 --> 00:45:50,813
and he knew that his work
877
00:45:50,882 --> 00:45:52,582
was supporting
the Royal Institution.
878
00:45:52,650 --> 00:45:55,451
He could say, "Right,
I've been doing your work
879
00:45:55,520 --> 00:45:56,886
"for the last five or six years.
880
00:45:56,955 --> 00:45:58,888
Now I'm going to do
my own work."
881
00:45:58,957 --> 00:46:00,723
EMERSON:
An invitation
from an organization
882
00:46:00,792 --> 00:46:03,726
once headed by Newton himself
883
00:46:03,795 --> 00:46:07,263
gave Davy the perfect chance
to show what he could do.
884
00:46:07,332 --> 00:46:10,066
HOLMES:
He was asked to lecture
not to the Royal Institution
885
00:46:10,135 --> 00:46:11,634
but to the Royal Society,
886
00:46:11,703 --> 00:46:14,070
the top scientific group
in the world.
887
00:46:14,139 --> 00:46:17,707
He needed to produce some
dramatically original science.
888
00:46:17,776 --> 00:46:21,677
EMERSON:
With this goal in mind,
Davy dived into the subject
889
00:46:21,746 --> 00:46:24,747
he'd been itching to return to
ever since Bristol.
890
00:46:24,816 --> 00:46:26,682
(thunder rumbling)
891
00:46:26,751 --> 00:46:28,184
Electricity.
892
00:46:28,253 --> 00:46:30,486
Up to now,
we have studied electricity
893
00:46:30,555 --> 00:46:32,955
only its most powerful form:
lightning.
894
00:46:33,024 --> 00:46:38,394
But its slow
and silent operations
895
00:46:38,463 --> 00:46:40,963
on the earth's surface
may prove more important.
896
00:46:41,032 --> 00:46:43,299
EMERSON:
From his early experiments,
897
00:46:43,368 --> 00:46:45,735
Davy had learned
that an electric current
898
00:46:45,804 --> 00:46:48,304
could pry apart
the hydrogen and oxygen atoms
899
00:46:48,373 --> 00:46:51,040
that made up water.
900
00:46:51,109 --> 00:46:53,409
You can use a battery
to un-bond things
901
00:46:53,478 --> 00:46:56,279
and find out
what the different elements are.
902
00:46:56,347 --> 00:46:59,215
EMERSON:
That gave Davy an idea.
903
00:46:59,284 --> 00:47:01,951
Could he use a bigger battery
904
00:47:02,020 --> 00:47:04,520
to tackle substances
that were harder to break down?
905
00:47:04,589 --> 00:47:06,756
ROCKE:
This is something you can do
906
00:47:06,825 --> 00:47:08,791
with this new source
of electricity.
907
00:47:08,860 --> 00:47:10,993
If a small battery
gives you a small effect,
908
00:47:11,062 --> 00:47:13,262
build a larger one
and you get a larger effect.
909
00:47:13,331 --> 00:47:16,199
EMERSON:
As the target
for his experiment,
910
00:47:16,267 --> 00:47:19,702
Davy chose caustic potash,
911
00:47:19,771 --> 00:47:23,639
a substance derived from wood
ashes collected in a pot.
912
00:47:23,708 --> 00:47:25,541
Chemists had long suspected
913
00:47:25,610 --> 00:47:27,844
it contained
an undiscovered element,
914
00:47:27,912 --> 00:47:29,946
but no one had been able
to break it down
915
00:47:30,014 --> 00:47:31,848
into simpler stuff.
916
00:47:31,916 --> 00:47:33,182
He believed
917
00:47:33,251 --> 00:47:35,952
that if you could apply
a charge to it in some way,
918
00:47:36,020 --> 00:47:39,956
you would discover something
about its inner nature.
919
00:47:40,024 --> 00:47:41,724
So Davy constructed
a really big battery
920
00:47:41,793 --> 00:47:43,993
because he wanted to see
921
00:47:44,062 --> 00:47:47,797
whether potash could be
decomposed into its elements.
922
00:47:47,866 --> 00:47:49,298
Davy was thus able
923
00:47:49,367 --> 00:47:50,967
to use the resources
of the Royal Institution
924
00:47:51,035 --> 00:47:52,468
to undertake
scientific research,
925
00:47:52,537 --> 00:47:54,036
which had never been
the intention
926
00:47:54,105 --> 00:47:55,805
of the founders of the RI.
927
00:47:55,874 --> 00:47:58,507
EMERSON:
But by the time
he began the work,
928
00:47:58,576 --> 00:48:02,178
his Royal Society lecture
was only a month away.
929
00:48:02,247 --> 00:48:03,813
Shall we?
930
00:48:03,882 --> 00:48:05,681
HOLMES:
He committed himself
rather recklessly
931
00:48:05,750 --> 00:48:08,017
because he didn't really have
much time.
932
00:48:08,086 --> 00:48:11,020
EMERSON:
Would this new battery
be strong enough
933
00:48:11,089 --> 00:48:13,789
to reveal what potash
was made of?
934
00:48:13,858 --> 00:48:16,259
HOLMES:
Working at top speed,
935
00:48:16,327 --> 00:48:19,161
he tries various ways
of applying the charge.
936
00:48:22,500 --> 00:48:24,800
EMERSON:
Davy first tried
putting a current
937
00:48:24,869 --> 00:48:28,104
through a mixture
of potash and water.
938
00:48:28,172 --> 00:48:31,641
All that did was split the water
into hydrogen and oxygen...
939
00:48:31,709 --> 00:48:32,842
Do you see anything?
940
00:48:32,911 --> 00:48:34,143
No.
941
00:48:34,212 --> 00:48:36,879
EMERSON:
...leaving the potash
unaffected.
942
00:48:36,948 --> 00:48:38,614
And then he tried
with dried potash.
943
00:48:40,418 --> 00:48:42,551
And again, nothing happened.
944
00:48:46,024 --> 00:48:49,125
EMERSON:
Finally, he moistened
the dry potash just a bit
945
00:48:49,193 --> 00:48:52,295
before applying the electricity.
946
00:48:52,363 --> 00:48:53,963
Dry potash
won't conduct electricity,
947
00:48:54,032 --> 00:48:56,232
but when I added a little water
948
00:48:56,301 --> 00:48:59,402
and applied a strong
electrical current,
949
00:48:59,470 --> 00:49:03,739
I soon observed a vivid action.
950
00:49:03,808 --> 00:49:05,741
There was a violent
effervescence
951
00:49:05,810 --> 00:49:08,210
and small globules.
952
00:49:08,279 --> 00:49:09,578
HOLMES:
It sweats forth
953
00:49:09,647 --> 00:49:12,915
these glowing,
shining globules.
954
00:49:12,984 --> 00:49:15,918
HUMPHRY DAVY:
They have a metallic luster
very much like mercury,
955
00:49:15,987 --> 00:49:22,825
and some of them exploded
and burnt with a bright flame.
956
00:49:22,894 --> 00:49:27,930
I realized these globules
957
00:49:27,999 --> 00:49:29,999
were the substance
I had been searching for.
958
00:49:30,068 --> 00:49:32,168
And this is a new element,
in fact.
959
00:49:32,236 --> 00:49:34,737
It's potassium, one of the
crucial elements for life.
960
00:49:34,806 --> 00:49:36,605
And he's discovered it.
961
00:49:36,674 --> 00:49:38,975
There's a wonderful description
made by his assistant,
962
00:49:39,043 --> 00:49:41,811
who was actually Edmund Davy,
a young cousin.
963
00:49:41,879 --> 00:49:44,981
He said, "The Professor
became a boy again."
964
00:49:45,049 --> 00:49:48,317
When he saw
those globules of potassium
965
00:49:48,386 --> 00:49:51,754
burst through the crust
of potash and catch fire,
966
00:49:51,823 --> 00:49:53,789
he couldn't contain his joy.
967
00:49:56,060 --> 00:50:01,263
(laughing)
968
00:50:01,332 --> 00:50:04,066
It was some time
before he could compose himself
969
00:50:04,135 --> 00:50:06,502
and continue
with the experiment.
970
00:50:06,571 --> 00:50:08,504
HOLMES:
You get the sense
of this huge excitement,
971
00:50:08,573 --> 00:50:09,905
doing things under pressure,
972
00:50:09,974 --> 00:50:11,841
not quite knowing
what will happen,
973
00:50:11,909 --> 00:50:13,843
whether the damn thing
will explode,
974
00:50:13,911 --> 00:50:15,311
and then suddenly,
975
00:50:15,380 --> 00:50:18,314
the unknown reveals itself.
976
00:50:18,383 --> 00:50:21,050
KNIGHT:
The atoms of potassium
and oxygen,
977
00:50:21,119 --> 00:50:23,019
so firmly glued together,
could be separated
978
00:50:23,087 --> 00:50:24,487
by an electric current
979
00:50:24,555 --> 00:50:29,558
in the same way as those oxygen
and hydrogen atoms in water.
980
00:50:29,627 --> 00:50:33,295
EMERSON:
The very next day,
Davy used the same method
981
00:50:33,364 --> 00:50:35,564
to pull apart caustic soda,
or lye,
982
00:50:35,633 --> 00:50:38,901
to reveal another new element:
sodium.
983
00:50:38,970 --> 00:50:42,505
These two new metals
were so soft,
984
00:50:42,573 --> 00:50:44,840
they could be cut with a knife,
985
00:50:44,909 --> 00:50:47,276
and so eager to recombine
with oxygen
986
00:50:47,345 --> 00:50:48,978
that they gave Davy
the perfect demonstration
987
00:50:49,047 --> 00:50:50,913
for his next lecture.
988
00:50:50,982 --> 00:50:52,481
Be ready for anything.
989
00:50:52,550 --> 00:50:53,582
All right.
990
00:50:56,988 --> 00:50:58,120
Whoa!
991
00:50:58,189 --> 00:51:00,689
(laughing)
992
00:51:00,758 --> 00:51:03,592
(audience gasping and cheering)
993
00:51:03,661 --> 00:51:07,329
EMERSON:
Davy had turned electricity
into a powerful tool
994
00:51:07,398 --> 00:51:09,799
in the search for new elements.
995
00:51:09,867 --> 00:51:13,803
The year after discovering
potassium and sodium,
996
00:51:13,871 --> 00:51:17,973
he used his battery
to isolate four more elements.
997
00:51:18,042 --> 00:51:21,110
And chemists all over Europe
seized on his technique,
998
00:51:21,179 --> 00:51:24,013
sending the number
of elements even higher.
999
00:51:28,319 --> 00:51:29,819
Sometimes,
the progress of science
1000
00:51:29,887 --> 00:51:33,622
is due less
to our intellectual powers
1001
00:51:33,691 --> 00:51:35,858
than to the tools
at our disposal.
1002
00:51:35,927 --> 00:51:38,761
Nothing promotes the advancement
of knowledge so much
1003
00:51:38,830 --> 00:51:41,597
as a new instrument.
1004
00:51:41,666 --> 00:51:44,467
EMERSON:
Exciting as these
discoveries were,
1005
00:51:44,535 --> 00:51:46,335
in time, it would become clear
1006
00:51:46,404 --> 00:51:49,305
that Davy's greatest
contribution was his insight
1007
00:51:49,373 --> 00:51:52,541
into one of the biggest
questions in chemistry.
1008
00:51:52,610 --> 00:51:56,479
KNIGHT:
Somehow, the particles of matter
have to be glued together
1009
00:51:56,547 --> 00:51:58,447
to form molecules.
1010
00:51:58,516 --> 00:52:01,417
And it was a complete mystery
as to what this glue might be.
1011
00:52:01,486 --> 00:52:04,086
What Davy has had, in effect,
is a big idea.
1012
00:52:04,155 --> 00:52:06,355
EMERSON:
If electricity
could pry apart the atoms
1013
00:52:06,424 --> 00:52:12,461
in water, potash and soda,
might electricity be the force
1014
00:52:12,530 --> 00:52:16,132
that stuck those atoms together
in the first place?
1015
00:52:16,200 --> 00:52:19,368
Is electricity an essential
property of matter?
1016
00:52:19,437 --> 00:52:23,072
KNIGHT:
Perhaps electricity,
with its plus and minus aspects,
1017
00:52:23,141 --> 00:52:25,307
could be this kind of glue.
1018
00:52:25,376 --> 00:52:27,343
HUMPHRY DAVY:
In every case that we know of,
1019
00:52:27,411 --> 00:52:30,813
substances that combine
with each other
1020
00:52:30,882 --> 00:52:33,215
have opposite electrical states.
1021
00:52:33,284 --> 00:52:36,719
Perhaps this is the reason
they're attracted to each other:
1022
00:52:36,787 --> 00:52:40,990
because opposites attract.
1023
00:52:41,058 --> 00:52:44,026
KNIGHT:
It looked as if electricity
might play in chemistry
1024
00:52:44,095 --> 00:52:49,365
the sort of role that gravity
played in Newtonian physics.
1025
00:52:49,433 --> 00:52:50,966
Remember, he thinks of himself
1026
00:52:51,035 --> 00:52:53,369
as on a par in some way
with Newton.
1027
00:52:53,437 --> 00:52:56,805
He is going to be the Newton
among chemists.
1028
00:52:56,874 --> 00:53:00,109
And in a sense,
he does eventually achieve that.
1029
00:53:02,713 --> 00:53:07,116
KNIGHT:
In the 18th century, electricity
was mostly parlor tricks,
1030
00:53:07,185 --> 00:53:10,085
like making somebody's hair
stand on end
1031
00:53:10,154 --> 00:53:12,521
and attracting little bits
of paper and so on.
1032
00:53:12,590 --> 00:53:16,959
Davy showed that electricity is
a fundamental aspect of matter.
1033
00:53:17,028 --> 00:53:19,695
Electricity is what holds us
together.
1034
00:53:19,764 --> 00:53:23,933
It is the glue that links
the particles of matter.
1035
00:53:24,001 --> 00:53:28,270
And therefore, instead of being
rather a side thing,
1036
00:53:28,339 --> 00:53:30,773
electricity is going to be
1037
00:53:30,841 --> 00:53:33,609
one of the really central
features of science.
1038
00:53:33,678 --> 00:53:35,377
It would take
more than a century
1039
00:53:35,446 --> 00:53:38,480
for other scientists to figure
out electricity's role.
1040
00:53:38,549 --> 00:53:40,816
But after Davy,
there was no doubt
1041
00:53:40,885 --> 00:53:42,618
it would be one of the keys
1042
00:53:42,687 --> 00:53:44,486
to solving the mystery
of matter.
1043
00:53:46,023 --> 00:53:48,457
Next time on
The Mystery of Matter...
1044
00:53:48,526 --> 00:53:50,960
MICHAEL GORDIN:
He figures out something
rather extraordinary
1045
00:53:51,028 --> 00:53:52,695
about the elements.
1046
00:53:52,763 --> 00:53:55,297
DMITRI MENDELEEV:
The eye is immediately struck
by a pattern:
1047
00:53:55,366 --> 00:53:57,600
a regular change
in the horizontal rows
1048
00:53:57,668 --> 00:53:59,435
and the vertical columns.
1049
00:53:59,503 --> 00:54:03,572
ERIC SCERRI:
He had discovered an absolutely
fundamental principle of nature.
1050
00:54:03,641 --> 00:54:05,741
EVE CURIE:
My mother made her measurements
over again--
1051
00:54:05,810 --> 00:54:07,610
ten times, 20 times--
1052
00:54:07,678 --> 00:54:10,746
until she was forced
to accept the results.
1053
00:54:10,815 --> 00:54:13,449
MARIE CURIE:
I proposed a new term to define
this property of matter:
1054
00:54:13,517 --> 00:54:14,917
radioactivity.
1055
00:54:17,054 --> 00:54:18,621
Major funding
1056
00:54:18,689 --> 00:54:19,788
for The Mystery of Matter:
Search for the Elements
1057
00:54:19,857 --> 00:54:21,257
was provided by...
1058
00:54:21,325 --> 00:54:23,292
The National Science
Foundation,
1059
00:54:23,361 --> 00:54:26,295
where discoveries begin.
1060
00:54:26,364 --> 00:54:28,697
Additional funding
provided by...
1061
00:54:28,766 --> 00:54:30,933
The Arthur Vining Davis
Foundations,
1062
00:54:31,002 --> 00:54:33,569
dedicated to strengthening
America's future
1063
00:54:33,638 --> 00:54:35,504
through education.
1064
00:54:35,573 --> 00:54:37,406
And by the following:
1065
00:54:47,018 --> 00:54:50,753
for the elements
and watch bonus
1066
00:54:50,821 --> 00:54:52,755
videos on the
featured
1067
00:54:52,823 --> 00:54:53,856
scientists,
visit pbs.org
1068
00:54:53,924 --> 00:54:55,724
/mysteryofmatter.
1069
00:54:56,027 --> 00:54:57,960
The Mystery
of Matter:
1070
00:54:58,029 --> 00:54:59,962
Search for
the Elements
1071
00:55:00,031 --> 00:55:01,897
is available on
DVD. To order,
1072
00:55:04,435 --> 00:55:07,703
visit shopPBS.org
or call
1073
00:55:07,772 --> 00:55:09,738
1-800-PLAY-PBS.
1074
00:55:12,710 --> 00:55:14,977
EMERSON:
Joseph Priestley was the first
to publish his discovery
1075
00:55:15,046 --> 00:55:17,680
of the remarkable gas
we call oxygen.
1076
00:55:17,748 --> 00:55:20,349
Antoine Lavoisier was the first
to understand
1077
00:55:20,418 --> 00:55:22,418
its true significance.
1078
00:55:22,486 --> 00:55:25,187
But there's a third man
in the oxygen story:
1079
00:55:25,256 --> 00:55:28,324
a Swedish apothecary named
Carl Wilhelm Scheele.
1080
00:55:28,392 --> 00:55:32,461
MAUSKOPF:
Who's also, like Priestley,
a wonderful experimentalist.
1081
00:55:32,530 --> 00:55:35,164
In fact, he made the discovery
before Priestley did,
1082
00:55:35,232 --> 00:55:37,733
possibly as early as 1771.
1083
00:55:37,802 --> 00:55:41,437
EMERSON:
But when he discovered the gas
he called "fire air,"
1084
00:55:41,505 --> 00:55:43,572
Scheele decided to publish
his results in a book
1085
00:55:43,641 --> 00:55:48,544
and waited years for his mentor
to write the preface.
1086
00:55:48,612 --> 00:55:50,546
The book doesn't get published
until 1777,
1087
00:55:50,614 --> 00:55:53,716
by which time all the chemists
of Europe had already heard
1088
00:55:53,784 --> 00:55:56,418
about Priestley's
and Lavoisier's work.
1089
00:55:56,487 --> 00:55:58,620
EMERSON:
While Scheele's discovery
of oxygen
1090
00:55:58,689 --> 00:56:01,223
had no impact
on the course of science,
1091
00:56:01,292 --> 00:56:02,758
he did go on to have a hand
1092
00:56:02,827 --> 00:56:05,961
in the discovery
of four more elements.
1093
00:56:06,030 --> 00:56:07,796
And got zero credit for this.
1094
00:56:07,865 --> 00:56:10,099
First of all,
he was a pharmacist,
1095
00:56:10,167 --> 00:56:12,167
and nobody paid
any attention to him.
1096
00:56:12,236 --> 00:56:14,403
Second, he was working
in Sweden,
1097
00:56:14,472 --> 00:56:17,539
and most of the scientific world
paid zero attention
1098
00:56:17,608 --> 00:56:19,375
to what was happening in Sweden.
1099
00:56:19,443 --> 00:56:23,712
And third, he had the misfortune
to die rather young
1100
00:56:23,781 --> 00:56:26,014
as a result of his own
experiments.
1101
00:56:26,083 --> 00:56:30,319
He was constantly sniffing
terrible chemical substances
1102
00:56:30,388 --> 00:56:32,788
and was eventually found dead
at his desk
1103
00:56:32,857 --> 00:56:36,158
with so many toxic materials
around him that to this day,
1104
00:56:36,227 --> 00:56:38,994
nobody has any idea
exactly what he died of.
100646
Can't find what you're looking for?
Get subtitles in any language from opensubtitles.com, and translate them here.