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Building the Colosseum
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was the culmination of the
career of Emperor Vespasian.
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And what he built still
stands, 2,000 years later.
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Today one of Italy's noted industrialists
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has stepped in to preserve
it for future generations.
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Workers are busy scrubbing the grime
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off the white travertine facade
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which is only now starting
to divulge many new secrets.
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Dawn rises on the Colosseum under restoration.
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Men and women are already at
work cleaning the facade.
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The view from the highest point
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gives a unique perspective on the engineering
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of how the world's largest
amphitheater was constructed.
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Travertine is extremely resistant to water
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and has provided support for the rest
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of the Colosseum structure for 2,000 years.
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The job entrusted to Conti and her team
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is not only to restore the
ancient glory of the stonework
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but also to ensure it has remained impermeable
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and, where it is fractured,
make it waterproof once again.
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With a resin hammer
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or with the wooden handle
we check the whole surface
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to see if the fragments are in situ, stable.
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We do it using percussion and sound,
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like a doctor listening to lungs.
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But also using tactile sensations
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because when we put our hand on the stone
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we can feel the difference in the vibrations
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and the extent of any detachments.
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Over the centuries various kinds of materials
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have been used to repair the Colosseum.
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Today restorers are using stucco
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made of a mix of limestone and marble powder
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which they have determined
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will best match the ancient stone.
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We don't use travertine powder
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which would have been coherent as an idea
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because aesthetically travertine powder
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creates an opaque paste when dried.
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So we use marble powder.
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Now I will show you the dried powder
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and you can see a variety of the colors we use
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so that the workers have a range of hues
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to arrive at the same color as the limestone.
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The stone changes color naturally over time.
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So cleaning it also means not destroying
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the natural color of the original
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which has been subject to weathering.
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Every step needs to be monitored
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so as to avoid turning the monument
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into an unnaturally white color.
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Cleaning between the stones is
delicate and time consuming.
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This layer that seems to have some
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tonal discontinuity in the
ivory white of the travertine
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represents, however, the passage of time.
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It is like my gray hairs from my black hairs,
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it is an aesthetic choice.
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I can dye my hair, I can also
dye the hair of the Colosseum
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We have to allow the visitor
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to understand that time has passed.
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The patient and laborious work
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of cleaning and restoring
the facade of the Coliseum
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is barely the beginning of the
massive renovation project.
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Just as getting the travertine stone to Rome
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was just the first step in building
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the biggest arena of the Roman Empire.
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They used the large
depression caused by the lake
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to build the foundation which
was an enormous structure.
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An elliptical structure with a central space,
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a sort of donut shaped
foundation layer 30 meters wide.
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In all it took 10 years for Vespasian
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and his sons, Titus and Domitian,
to build the massive arena
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which was called the Flavian Amphitheater,
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after their family name.
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Although Vespasian died just two years
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before the massive job was done
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this great Roman general's
legacy has survived to this day.
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It was absolutely a short
time if you think about
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the square meters of structure built
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and considering the tools and equipment
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that they had access to.
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Once inside the Colosseum
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engineers used the existing inclined planes
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inside the cavea to haul slabs
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of travertine to the highest parts.
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While slaves did much of the heavy lifting
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experts believe specialized artisans
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were overseeing the work.
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You can have slaves that can be employed
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as the stone carvers and whatnot
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for something specific and technical
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but it just wasn't convenient for the state
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to have slaves, or employ slaves,
for this kind of activity.
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The work, the building of Rome,
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is done by soldiers, is done by associations,
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and groups of carpenters and masons and so forth,
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that could have slaves but again,
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this is not to say that it was built by slaves.
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Four different companies are believed
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to have been contracted to build the Colosseum
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working simultaneously on different segments.
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Architects have studied the joints
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where the different construction company's
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segments came together.
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And inside the monument itself
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we see different engineering solutions
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applied to the same problem.
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The goal was to build this giant building
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as fast as possible, not to make it
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particularly elegant or beautiful.
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They believe the work was divided in sectors
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and given to different construction companies
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that worked at the same time.
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In various points we see these joints.
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There are several places where
the arches are deformed
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with their heads at different heights.
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And you can see that this is where
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the different teams came together.
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Roman engineering had already performed
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the miracles of the aqueducts and the Roman roads
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and although no designs of
the Colosseum have emerged
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the basic principles of Roman architecture
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had been codified.
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The arch was introduced by the Etruscans
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but the Romans understood its potential
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and used it everywhere such
as in aqueducts and bridges.
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The arch is a great structure because
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with a small amount of material
you can cover large spaces.
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The arch works because it creates
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a horizontal force between the blocks
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that is compensated for when they touch the ground.
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The strength of crossed arches
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was already known to the Romans.
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There were two kinds of arches
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involved in the Flavian amphitheater.
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The barrel vault made of Roman concrete and bricks,
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which was built using wooden molds,
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and the crossed arch in travertine stone.
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The distribution of forces
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gave these arches incredible strength,
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especially when supported by adjacent arches.
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Roman concrete was more resistant
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than its modern equivalent because its
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component parts solidified when wet.
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The arches, the concrete, and the travertine
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all worked together to make
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the Colosseum extremely solid.
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In the Colosseum the horizontal forces
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that each arch creates is compensated
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for by the next arch down.
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So every arch compensates the forces
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generated by the neighboring arch.
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The building was held
together thanks to geometry.
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These huge columns are made
of great blocks of stone
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and the interplay of arches
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keeps the whole structure standing.
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The solid structure
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that has survived to this
day is not only the result
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of the advanced Roman engineering techniques
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but also shows signs of their
very practical application
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to speed up the building work.
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For 2,000 years the Colosseum has defied
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the ravages of time to remain standing.
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But it won't last forever without
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regular maintenance and key structural repairs
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which are finally being carried out today
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thanks to a unique public-private partnership
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for its restoration.
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The construction techniques used for the Colosseum
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are the same as those used in Capua and Verona.
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The internal surface of the building
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is covered in brick work which functions
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as a lining for the stone structure,
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adding uniformity, support, and lightness.
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From this viewpoint you see the exterior,
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grand height of the Colosseum,
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which has disappeared on this side.
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It's been damaged by an earthquake,
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that material's been carted off.
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We get a view into the interior ring,
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also of travertine stone,
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but then it peters out and becomes brick.
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That's been reconstructed.
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So when you look at the Colosseum
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you're getting all kinds of different views
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into the history, and the
reconstruction, the shoring up,
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and the stripping out, of this grand monument.
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This is where one
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construction segment meets another.
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The difference in the stonework
is clear to the naked eye.
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The Romans were very pragmatic.
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They paid attention to detail
only where it could be seen.
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Wherever there were places that couldn't be seen
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or wouldn't be noticed in the overall building
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they didn't spend too much
because precision has a cost.
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The interior of the Colosseum is different.
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It's not travertine stone, it's the brickwork.
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But the brickwork is clad in marble.
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So the marble veneer has all but disappeared
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but you can imagine the entire
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interior space shining with marble.
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The top of the Colosseum's still visible today
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and you can a lot of the stonework,
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its place, it looks a little, not quite so neat.
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From the exterior of it of course
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it's perfectly carved and
wonderful and well organized.
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But on the inside it wasn't gonna be on view.
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That particular arrangement of the stone blocks
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so they're not cut to the perfection
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that they could have done.
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No-one's gonna see that part so who cares?
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We see it today, exposed, and we ask questions.
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The inside arches betray
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the junction of the segments.
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The way the barrel vaults are built
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can be seen clearly here.
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The brickwork would have been supported
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by wooden molds that held the bricks
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and mortar together until dry.
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The construction of amphitheaters,
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not only of the Colosseum,
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but of all theaters and amphitheaters
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was made possible by the massive use
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of Roman cement, concrete that allowed the Romans
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to build barrel vaults in series
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such as those you can see in the amphitheaters.
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The stones were laid one on the other
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without cement, so the masonry
had to be extremely precise.
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Today when you go inside
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it's been partially reconstructed.
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Now there's even the idea to reconstruct all of it
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to allow more access to explore
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and experience the Colosseum.
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But in ancient times it's all wood,
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and then you have the trap doors
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and up pop the protagonists: the gladiators
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and many of the wild animals.
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Historians believe the format for Roman games
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involved animal hunts in the morning,
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executions of criminals at midday,
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and gladiatorial combats, or re-creations
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of famous battles in the afternoon and evening.
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The big stone structures down
below in the foundations
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held up the lighter structures above
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where the public sat to watch the games.
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As the arches rose upwards the construction
247
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materials used were lighter and lighter.
248
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The Colosseum is held up by travertine stone
249
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which are the travertine columns.
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And it becomes lighter as the structure
251
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rises to the upper floors.
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So the heaviest part is the first level
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because it holds up the whole of the upper floors
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that right now are missing.
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The entire amphitheater was richly decorated
256
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in marble and bronze, with statues in every arch.
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The whole Colosseum was capped
with a sail-like awning
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to shelter the spectators from the sun.
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It was held up by ropes and poles
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resting on ledges all around the construction,
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each with its own drain to stop
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the wood rotting in the rain.
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It can't fall inwards
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00:15:37,995 --> 00:15:42,454
because the radial walls resist
inward horizontal pressure.
265
00:15:42,455 --> 00:15:46,414
While forces that are pushing
outwards are more problematic
266
00:15:46,415 --> 00:15:49,374
because there are no outer structures.
267
00:15:49,375 --> 00:15:52,954
That's why the Colosseum is not cylindrical
268
00:15:52,955 --> 00:15:57,955
but slightly conical and gets
narrower towards the top.
269
00:15:58,211 --> 00:16:00,610
And this means that the center of gravity
270
00:16:00,611 --> 00:16:04,550
of the stone masses are displaced inwards,
271
00:16:04,551 --> 00:16:08,309
and this makes outward collapse more difficult.
272
00:16:10,829 --> 00:16:14,146
This is where the less affluent people of Rome
273
00:16:14,147 --> 00:16:16,966
would watch the battles in the arena.
274
00:16:16,967 --> 00:16:20,146
But even then they would still be no further
275
00:16:20,147 --> 00:16:23,746
than 60 meters from the combat.
276
00:16:23,747 --> 00:16:27,972
In 80 AD the Emperor Titus inaugurated
277
00:16:27,973 --> 00:16:32,330
the great arena with lavish inaugural games
278
00:16:32,331 --> 00:16:37,330
and feasting that lasted more than 100 days.
279
00:16:37,331 --> 00:16:39,730
Exotic animals were transported
280
00:16:39,731 --> 00:16:43,490
from the wilds of Africa for special hunts
281
00:16:43,491 --> 00:16:45,350
and the best fighters were called
282
00:16:45,351 --> 00:16:48,111
into service as entertainment.
283
00:16:49,971 --> 00:16:52,710
Weeks, months, of continuous games,
284
00:16:52,711 --> 00:16:54,847
thousands of animals killed.
285
00:16:54,848 --> 00:16:58,117
Hundreds of men to fight in that arena.
286
00:16:58,118 --> 00:17:00,337
But there is one story in particular
287
00:17:00,338 --> 00:17:03,277
of two gladiators who get called out of retirement
288
00:17:03,278 --> 00:17:06,357
to come back and fight for this big event.
289
00:17:06,358 --> 00:17:09,617
A bit like if we were to
inaugurate a stadium today,
290
00:17:09,618 --> 00:17:13,618
if we were to call back Pele and Beckenbauer.
291
00:17:14,438 --> 00:17:17,497
At the time of Titus' inaugural games
292
00:17:17,498 --> 00:17:20,877
the cellars were built of wood not of brickwork.
293
00:17:20,878 --> 00:17:24,677
They were made of wood so that
they could be dismantled,
294
00:17:24,678 --> 00:17:27,997
the arena stage taken down for sea battles
295
00:17:27,998 --> 00:17:31,057
and then rebuilt for the gladiatorial combat
296
00:17:31,058 --> 00:17:33,008
and the animal hunts.
297
00:17:34,098 --> 00:17:35,431
The games that would go down
298
00:17:35,432 --> 00:17:38,162
in history as the most lavish however
299
00:17:38,163 --> 00:17:41,381
were those held by Trajan when he celebrated
300
00:17:41,382 --> 00:17:45,501
the conquest of Dacia, today's Romania.
301
00:17:45,502 --> 00:17:47,289
The most spectacular games
302
00:17:47,290 --> 00:17:50,889
were Trajan's celebration of the conquest of Dacia
303
00:17:50,890 --> 00:17:53,409
which lasted 120 days
304
00:17:53,410 --> 00:17:57,389
and over 25,000 gladiators fought each other.
305
00:17:57,390 --> 00:18:01,159
The Colossus statue of Nero was preserved
306
00:18:01,160 --> 00:18:04,799
and Hadrian had it moved from near his palace
307
00:18:04,800 --> 00:18:07,949
to a place by the amphitheater.
308
00:18:07,950 --> 00:18:11,859
It was the Roman's memory of
that massive sun god statue
309
00:18:11,860 --> 00:18:14,559
that gave the Flavian amphitheater
310
00:18:14,560 --> 00:18:17,799
its nickname, the Colosseum.
311
00:18:17,800 --> 00:18:19,019
Just off to the left where you see
312
00:18:19,020 --> 00:18:22,379
a couple of little cypress
trees, there stood the Colossus.
313
00:18:22,380 --> 00:18:25,499
It was an enormous statue, we're talking about
314
00:18:25,500 --> 00:18:27,639
the size of the Statue of Liberty,
315
00:18:27,640 --> 00:18:29,279
except for the arm was not upraised,
316
00:18:29,280 --> 00:18:31,319
it was resting on a pillar.
317
00:18:31,320 --> 00:18:35,679
Over time when we hear of it no more authors start
318
00:18:35,680 --> 00:18:39,979
to call the Flavian amphitheater the Colosseum.
319
00:18:43,199 --> 00:18:45,839
The last use of the Colosseum that we know of
320
00:18:45,840 --> 00:18:50,059
comes after an edict by Honorius in 404 AD.
321
00:18:50,060 --> 00:18:52,219
And here to, let's remember that there
322
00:18:52,220 --> 00:18:55,279
is no perfect recipe for a good gladiator,
323
00:18:55,280 --> 00:18:59,019
for a good amphitheater, for the beautiful battle.
324
00:18:59,020 --> 00:19:00,879
We are talking about a practice
325
00:19:00,880 --> 00:19:04,559
that began in the 3rd century BC and that ended
326
00:19:04,560 --> 00:19:07,239
at the end of the 5th century AD,
327
00:19:07,240 --> 00:19:10,340
an incredibly long space of time.
328
00:19:12,730 --> 00:19:14,944
In a Colosseum that the sources
329
00:19:14,945 --> 00:19:18,784
tell us was already partially
buried by the events of time:
330
00:19:18,785 --> 00:19:22,304
battered by earthquakes, fires, and lightning,
331
00:19:22,305 --> 00:19:24,264
and the removal of marble,
332
00:19:24,265 --> 00:19:28,844
in 528 AD, at the time of the Langobards in Rome,
333
00:19:28,845 --> 00:19:30,704
a hunt is organized.
334
00:19:30,705 --> 00:19:33,744
This hunt, in 528, in the Colosseum,
335
00:19:33,745 --> 00:19:36,625
was the lat recorded event of its kind.
336
00:19:39,907 --> 00:19:42,317
As Rome declined the Colosseum
337
00:19:42,318 --> 00:19:45,117
was put to many uses.
338
00:19:45,118 --> 00:19:47,798
As here, at the Theater of Marcellus,
339
00:19:47,799 --> 00:19:50,958
house were built inside the structure,
340
00:19:50,959 --> 00:19:53,598
but they did not stay for long.
341
00:19:53,599 --> 00:19:56,538
The Colosseum was rich in resources
342
00:19:56,539 --> 00:19:58,838
which over the years would be pillaged
343
00:19:58,839 --> 00:20:01,898
and reused in other ways.
344
00:20:01,899 --> 00:20:04,638
If you look at the stone and the exterior
345
00:20:04,639 --> 00:20:08,798
you see the travertine blocks
oftentimes have holes in them.
346
00:20:08,799 --> 00:20:13,158
And those holes tell the tale
of people in the middle ages
347
00:20:13,159 --> 00:20:15,558
extracting the metal pins that were
348
00:20:15,559 --> 00:20:17,898
originally joining one block to another block.
349
00:20:17,899 --> 00:20:21,458
So in the end this large, abandoned site
350
00:20:21,459 --> 00:20:25,558
is becoming a quarry, is
becoming a free shopping mall,
351
00:20:25,559 --> 00:20:27,418
and people are coming and taking material
352
00:20:27,419 --> 00:20:29,318
that they can use again.
353
00:20:29,319 --> 00:20:31,078
The molten lead that held
354
00:20:31,079 --> 00:20:34,378
the stone blocks together was hacked out.
355
00:20:34,379 --> 00:20:38,467
Travertine was burned in lime kilns to make mortar.
356
00:20:39,385 --> 00:20:43,531
The urine of horses stabled there eroded the stone
357
00:20:43,532 --> 00:20:46,892
for use as saltpeter and gunpowder.
358
00:20:47,790 --> 00:20:49,748
Worse was to come.
359
00:20:52,048 --> 00:20:55,505
When we look at the exterior of the Colosseum
360
00:20:55,506 --> 00:20:59,825
we don't see that massive, 50 meter high exterior
361
00:20:59,826 --> 00:21:04,225
around the entire structure,
it only exists on one side.
362
00:21:04,226 --> 00:21:06,325
What about the other side, what happened?
363
00:21:06,326 --> 00:21:10,025
A massive earthquake, and a
large section here on one side,
364
00:21:10,026 --> 00:21:12,645
tumbles down in the middle of the 14th century.
365
00:21:12,646 --> 00:21:15,785
So by the time we get into great documented periods
366
00:21:15,786 --> 00:21:19,645
like the Renaissance we read
about cartloads of material
367
00:21:19,646 --> 00:21:23,465
being taken from this job
site, or this ruinous site,
368
00:21:23,466 --> 00:21:29,666
over to St Peters' facade,
hospitals, bridges.
369
00:21:31,386 --> 00:21:33,193
Palazzo Venezia was built
370
00:21:33,194 --> 00:21:36,273
for the Cardinals of Venice in the 1500s
371
00:21:36,274 --> 00:21:39,603
with stones from the Colosseum.
372
00:21:39,604 --> 00:21:41,573
They were also used for the lodger
373
00:21:41,574 --> 00:21:45,753
of the City of Rome's Cathedral,
San Giovanni in Laterano,
374
00:21:45,754 --> 00:21:50,493
as well as today's French Embassy, Palazzo Farnese.
375
00:21:50,494 --> 00:21:55,494
Finally the Colosseum was
saved when Pope Benedict XIV
376
00:21:55,774 --> 00:21:59,673
declared it a monument to Christian martyrs.
377
00:21:59,674 --> 00:22:03,054
No-one could touch it any longer.
378
00:22:05,044 --> 00:22:08,653
Although coal fires and traffic quickly covered
379
00:22:08,654 --> 00:22:12,994
the white facade with a soft black layer of soot.
380
00:22:16,164 --> 00:22:18,343
The goal of this work site
381
00:22:18,344 --> 00:22:22,203
is not only to take away the deposit of black soot
382
00:22:22,204 --> 00:22:27,204
but also identify all the
cracks and create a single map.
383
00:22:27,644 --> 00:22:30,453
This has never been done.
384
00:22:30,454 --> 00:22:32,693
There's a difference between a small crack
385
00:22:32,694 --> 00:22:37,184
at this height and a long crack
that goes up to the top.
386
00:22:37,934 --> 00:22:41,302
We have to see if it goes all the way up.
387
00:22:45,162 --> 00:22:47,459
The layer of black grime
388
00:22:47,460 --> 00:22:51,219
lead previous restorers to use dark cement
389
00:22:51,220 --> 00:22:55,079
to fill in the holes and cracks in the facade.
390
00:22:55,080 --> 00:23:00,080
Dr Conti must renovate the renovations of the past.
391
00:23:05,165 --> 00:23:06,914
Much of the stucco laid
392
00:23:06,915 --> 00:23:11,694
in those years, the 1950s and 60s, is black.
393
00:23:11,695 --> 00:23:14,635
Not because the restorers of
the time were incompetent
394
00:23:14,636 --> 00:23:17,895
or color blind but simply because we have
395
00:23:17,896 --> 00:23:21,275
to imagine that the surface was black.
396
00:23:21,276 --> 00:23:24,475
They returned the color and integrated the stone
397
00:23:24,476 --> 00:23:27,975
with black filling, the color of the stone
398
00:23:27,976 --> 00:23:30,936
and its dirty surroundings.
399
00:23:34,336 --> 00:23:36,636
The world's most famous monument
400
00:23:36,637 --> 00:23:38,776
is not only getting a clean up
401
00:23:38,777 --> 00:23:42,736
but is also due to be modernized inside and out
402
00:23:42,737 --> 00:23:45,797
amid a storm of controversy.
403
00:23:53,174 --> 00:23:56,774
Restorers are hard at work with nebulizers,
404
00:23:56,775 --> 00:24:01,575
brushes, and sponges cleaning
away the grime of centuries.
405
00:24:02,935 --> 00:24:06,255
Renovation is due to take two years.
406
00:24:06,256 --> 00:24:09,175
And the problems that face
the ancient amphitheater,
407
00:24:09,176 --> 00:24:13,716
before it can be fully opened
to the public, are still many.
408
00:24:16,296 --> 00:24:19,946
Doing conservation work on
a site like the Colosseum
409
00:24:19,947 --> 00:24:23,726
is gonna be multifaceted, it's not just one issue.
410
00:24:23,727 --> 00:24:26,426
You've gotta always worry about water infiltration.
411
00:24:26,427 --> 00:24:29,146
Here on this hillside overlooking the Colosseum
412
00:24:29,147 --> 00:24:31,066
you see what happens over time
413
00:24:31,067 --> 00:24:32,966
is that water is going to run off
414
00:24:32,967 --> 00:24:35,417
and that runoff can eventually lead to a collapse.
415
00:24:35,418 --> 00:24:37,777
Occasionally you have seismic activity,
416
00:24:37,778 --> 00:24:39,577
you have the threat of earthquake,
417
00:24:39,578 --> 00:24:41,457
so you have ongoing threats.
418
00:24:41,458 --> 00:24:44,957
And of course you have traffic, you have pollution,
419
00:24:44,958 --> 00:24:47,697
but you also have a metro line passing underneath.
420
00:24:47,698 --> 00:24:50,017
You have the cars and the metro
421
00:24:50,018 --> 00:24:53,028
that are creating more seismic activity.
422
00:24:55,590 --> 00:24:58,189
Naturally the vibrations of the heavy traffic
423
00:24:58,190 --> 00:25:02,159
or the irregularity of the
frequency of the vibrations
424
00:25:02,160 --> 00:25:04,990
can produce problems for the surface
425
00:25:04,991 --> 00:25:08,652
only if the surface is already weakened.
426
00:25:12,232 --> 00:25:14,622
Some of the most advanced monitoring
427
00:25:14,623 --> 00:25:17,762
of water infiltration and seismic activity
428
00:25:17,763 --> 00:25:20,522
inside an ancient Roman arena
429
00:25:20,523 --> 00:25:24,313
is already being done in Verona, to the north.
430
00:25:25,333 --> 00:25:29,443
Here the Romans had designed
every seat, every stair,
431
00:25:29,444 --> 00:25:34,444
so that water would run off into
a complex system of drains.
432
00:25:40,555 --> 00:25:42,005
The Romans had designed
433
00:25:42,006 --> 00:25:44,445
the seats very differently in that the way
434
00:25:44,446 --> 00:25:48,845
the seat was carved reduced the points of contact,
435
00:25:48,846 --> 00:25:50,645
and at the edges there was
436
00:25:50,646 --> 00:25:53,965
a small protuberance carved into the stone
437
00:25:53,966 --> 00:25:56,916
to stop water filtering under it.
438
00:26:00,106 --> 00:26:02,859
But when the later engineers in Verona
439
00:26:02,860 --> 00:26:05,899
replaced the damaged marble seating
440
00:26:05,900 --> 00:26:09,900
they left gaps that allow water to seep through.
441
00:26:11,560 --> 00:26:13,579
This situation was not respected
442
00:26:13,580 --> 00:26:15,417
when replacing the material.
443
00:26:15,418 --> 00:26:18,817
And consequently, from this kind of placement,
444
00:26:18,818 --> 00:26:21,397
we have serious problems today.
445
00:26:21,398 --> 00:26:25,377
The water infiltrates and
goes and damages the arches
446
00:26:25,378 --> 00:26:27,878
threatening to erode the material.
447
00:26:33,989 --> 00:26:36,955
We are only filling up the larger cavities
448
00:26:36,956 --> 00:26:40,755
that threaten to let rainwater
through the stone facade
449
00:26:40,756 --> 00:26:43,495
into the are of the barrel vault
450
00:26:43,496 --> 00:26:46,515
which are the true weak point of the monument
451
00:26:46,516 --> 00:26:50,236
that need to be protected
from water and vibrations.
452
00:26:56,946 --> 00:26:59,326
Any damage to the Roman mortar
453
00:26:59,327 --> 00:27:01,706
that holds up the barrel vaults
454
00:27:01,707 --> 00:27:05,747
poses a mortal threat to the whole structure.
455
00:27:08,577 --> 00:27:09,857
There is no longer a roof
456
00:27:09,858 --> 00:27:13,297
on the Colosseum, so the water enters.
457
00:27:13,298 --> 00:27:16,517
But we try to maintain the floors below
458
00:27:16,518 --> 00:27:19,877
that are the roof of the arches that are beneath.
459
00:27:19,878 --> 00:27:22,317
Aside from the nebulization,
460
00:27:22,318 --> 00:27:25,317
as we turned on the tap to wash,
461
00:27:25,318 --> 00:27:28,597
we also stuck a surgical tube in every hole
462
00:27:28,598 --> 00:27:31,118
to see if it went through.
463
00:27:38,789 --> 00:27:40,808
The delicate work of gently hammering
464
00:27:40,809 --> 00:27:45,728
the stone to find empty spaces is time consuming.
465
00:27:45,729 --> 00:27:49,330
Once identified, the hole behind the facade
466
00:27:49,331 --> 00:27:52,230
has to be filled up with marble stucco
467
00:27:52,231 --> 00:27:54,510
to make sure water does not filter through
468
00:27:54,511 --> 00:27:57,610
to the vaults and further damage them.
469
00:27:57,611 --> 00:28:00,190
As they remain the structure on which
470
00:28:00,191 --> 00:28:03,651
the whole of the Colosseum still stands.
471
00:28:06,331 --> 00:28:09,150
The stucco down here, as you can see,
472
00:28:09,151 --> 00:28:11,690
has a different color tone from the ones
473
00:28:11,691 --> 00:28:15,450
we saw before because it is getting close
474
00:28:15,451 --> 00:28:19,621
to the true amber color of the travertine.
475
00:28:24,031 --> 00:28:25,830
Once the job of consolidating
476
00:28:25,831 --> 00:28:29,230
the Colosseum is completed the next step
477
00:28:29,231 --> 00:28:32,611
will be to decide what to do with it.
478
00:28:34,631 --> 00:28:37,021
The city of Verona has more than a century
479
00:28:37,022 --> 00:28:41,641
of experience using its arena for modern events.
480
00:28:41,642 --> 00:28:45,661
They have struck a balance
for making necessary repairs
481
00:28:45,662 --> 00:28:49,851
to the monument while making
healthy returns for the city.
482
00:28:49,852 --> 00:28:52,671
The Verona opera season is an important
483
00:28:52,672 --> 00:28:55,131
source of revenue for the whole city.
484
00:28:55,132 --> 00:28:59,511
We're talking about 450 million Euros of turnover
485
00:28:59,512 --> 00:29:03,111
associated with all the
activities of the foundation.
486
00:29:03,112 --> 00:29:05,011
But most stage managers
487
00:29:05,012 --> 00:29:07,211
aren't accustomed to holding events
488
00:29:07,212 --> 00:29:10,731
in a structure 2,000 years old.
489
00:29:10,732 --> 00:29:13,911
City and government officials are responsible
490
00:29:13,912 --> 00:29:15,911
for preserving the monument
491
00:29:15,912 --> 00:29:19,413
and also protecting the spectators.
492
00:29:23,743 --> 00:29:26,873
Our experience, acquired over the years,
493
00:29:26,874 --> 00:29:29,133
is that the organizers of events
494
00:29:29,134 --> 00:29:32,733
born for stadium environments are not flexible
495
00:29:32,734 --> 00:29:37,734
in adapting them to archaeological
sites such as the arena.
496
00:29:43,444 --> 00:29:45,433
Indeed, over the years,
497
00:29:45,434 --> 00:29:49,293
the whole of the arena, almost
as large as the Colosseum,
498
00:29:49,294 --> 00:29:51,953
has been rendered safe and functional
499
00:29:51,954 --> 00:29:55,913
using sensors like this
placed in cracks in the vault
500
00:29:55,914 --> 00:30:00,473
under the public seating to
register the slightest movement.
501
00:30:00,474 --> 00:30:04,554
The system set in place is the
most advanced of its kind.
502
00:30:06,134 --> 00:30:07,293
Monitoring the structure
503
00:30:07,294 --> 00:30:09,193
is done through instruments set up
504
00:30:09,194 --> 00:30:12,713
in the arena aimed at verifying the static
505
00:30:12,714 --> 00:30:16,254
and dynamic behavior of the amphitheater.
506
00:30:27,651 --> 00:30:29,931
Just a few days after the system
507
00:30:29,932 --> 00:30:32,711
became operational the city of Verona
508
00:30:32,712 --> 00:30:34,651
experienced an earthquake
509
00:30:34,652 --> 00:30:37,911
registering five on the Richter scale.
510
00:30:37,912 --> 00:30:40,691
To his delight the team were able
511
00:30:40,692 --> 00:30:45,132
to verify the mathematical
models used to build his system.
512
00:30:48,283 --> 00:30:50,183
The earthquake was quite large
513
00:30:50,184 --> 00:30:53,684
but did not damage the structure of the arena.
514
00:30:54,724 --> 00:30:56,814
Later, his team were able to verify
515
00:30:56,815 --> 00:30:59,434
the effects of rock concerts in the arena
516
00:30:59,435 --> 00:31:01,754
and reassure the Culture Ministry
517
00:31:01,755 --> 00:31:05,095
that this precious monument was safe.
518
00:31:11,255 --> 00:31:13,646
There was a doubt that the sound levels
519
00:31:13,647 --> 00:31:16,186
could create problems with the structure
520
00:31:16,187 --> 00:31:18,506
but with this system we could see
521
00:31:18,507 --> 00:31:22,006
that in any situation the level of disturbance,
522
00:31:22,007 --> 00:31:25,266
such as from the sound levels during the concerts,
523
00:31:25,267 --> 00:31:27,246
was, in any case, smaller than that
524
00:31:27,247 --> 00:31:29,987
registered in the earthquake.
525
00:31:33,727 --> 00:31:36,977
In a rare visit to the tunnels under the cavea
526
00:31:36,978 --> 00:31:41,419
Mr Menon illustrates how the Verona arena worked.
527
00:31:45,990 --> 00:31:48,509
We don't have traces of how the animals
528
00:31:48,510 --> 00:31:51,349
and scenography were put onto the stage
529
00:31:51,350 --> 00:31:54,349
but we know that this space did have
530
00:31:54,350 --> 00:31:57,029
two semi-circular niches where there
531
00:31:57,030 --> 00:31:59,790
was a lift and pulley system.
532
00:32:03,660 --> 00:32:07,040
Today this system of cables and rods
533
00:32:07,041 --> 00:32:10,520
keeps the floor stable under the orchestra pit
534
00:32:10,521 --> 00:32:13,900
making the arena suitable for concerts.
535
00:32:13,901 --> 00:32:16,760
So far the Colosseum has not reaped
536
00:32:16,761 --> 00:32:19,440
the benefits of show business.
537
00:32:19,441 --> 00:32:23,420
But one day the Colosseum
cavea could be covered too
538
00:32:23,421 --> 00:32:26,321
and concerts and events held there.
539
00:32:29,261 --> 00:32:30,440
The new floor could
540
00:32:30,441 --> 00:32:32,911
be used for cultural initiatives.
541
00:32:32,912 --> 00:32:35,031
So this could give the monument
542
00:32:35,032 --> 00:32:38,851
a greater value to the public, enrich its use,
543
00:32:38,852 --> 00:32:42,012
and its relationship with the public.
544
00:32:47,232 --> 00:32:50,524
In fact, whole new areas of the Colosseum
545
00:32:50,525 --> 00:32:53,344
that were not accessible to the public before
546
00:32:53,345 --> 00:32:55,904
are going to be opened for tours
547
00:32:55,905 --> 00:32:58,985
after renovation is complete.
548
00:33:01,865 --> 00:33:04,117
The total renovation of the cellars
549
00:33:04,118 --> 00:33:06,738
will allow us to open them to visitors
550
00:33:06,739 --> 00:33:09,198
which will be limited to small groups
551
00:33:09,199 --> 00:33:11,558
because it is a labyrinth-like structure
552
00:33:11,559 --> 00:33:14,059
that requires a guide.
553
00:33:17,789 --> 00:33:20,475
As the rest of Rome gets a face-lift
554
00:33:20,476 --> 00:33:23,835
thanks to private money, restoring and using
555
00:33:23,836 --> 00:33:26,595
the holy grail of Roman monuments
556
00:33:26,596 --> 00:33:31,266
for marketing and promotion
is subject to controversy.
557
00:33:32,126 --> 00:33:33,977
I think part of what companies get,
558
00:33:33,978 --> 00:33:36,257
get the fame but the recognition,
559
00:33:36,258 --> 00:33:37,957
it's getting publicity.
560
00:33:37,958 --> 00:33:41,848
So "Tod's, Tod's, Tod's", you
hear this over and over again
561
00:33:41,849 --> 00:33:43,488
because of what they're doing
562
00:33:43,489 --> 00:33:45,248
in association with the Colosseum.
563
00:33:45,249 --> 00:33:47,508
The Colosseum Restoration Accord
564
00:33:47,509 --> 00:33:52,088
calls for not just restoration
but also other initiatives
565
00:33:52,089 --> 00:33:55,748
such as the establishment of
a non-profit organization,
566
00:33:55,749 --> 00:33:58,668
Friends of the Colosseum, which will operate
567
00:33:58,669 --> 00:34:02,629
the external aspects such as managing the monument.
568
00:34:04,310 --> 00:34:05,989
The agreement on the Colosseum
569
00:34:05,990 --> 00:34:09,029
allows for the creation of
a non-profit organization
570
00:34:09,030 --> 00:34:11,919
called Friends of the Colosseum.
571
00:34:11,920 --> 00:34:14,290
And this association has actually
572
00:34:14,291 --> 00:34:16,390
been created to help the spread
573
00:34:16,391 --> 00:34:20,011
of cultural activities around the Colosseum.
574
00:34:23,121 --> 00:34:26,001
Friends of this organization,
Friends of the Colosseum,
575
00:34:26,002 --> 00:34:28,021
Friends of the Louvre and so on.
576
00:34:28,022 --> 00:34:30,221
And they're recognized as individuals
577
00:34:30,222 --> 00:34:31,861
and as organizations because they too
578
00:34:31,862 --> 00:34:34,201
want to help preserve this world heritage.
579
00:34:34,202 --> 00:34:35,262
It's not easy.
580
00:34:39,113 --> 00:34:41,023
We are going to build a help center
581
00:34:41,024 --> 00:34:43,343
that will take out the activities
582
00:34:43,344 --> 00:34:46,063
that are at present inside the monument
583
00:34:46,064 --> 00:34:49,223
that aren't really compatible with the monument
584
00:34:49,224 --> 00:34:53,214
such as a small book shop, the
ticket office, and toilets.
585
00:34:54,264 --> 00:34:56,724
Clearly we can't create large enough spaces
586
00:34:56,725 --> 00:34:59,864
within the monument, while outside the monument
587
00:34:59,865 --> 00:35:02,464
we will have more space to help visitors
588
00:35:02,465 --> 00:35:04,364
that we know are at least between
589
00:35:04,365 --> 00:35:07,925
five and a half million and six million a year.
590
00:35:13,295 --> 00:35:17,486
Diego Della Valle is the CEO of Tod's Group
591
00:35:17,487 --> 00:35:20,866
an Italian manufacturer of shoes and leather goods
592
00:35:20,867 --> 00:35:25,247
who has long been tempted to
enter the political arena.
593
00:35:26,257 --> 00:35:28,117
The maverick shoe maker struck a deal
594
00:35:28,118 --> 00:35:30,077
with the Italian Culture Ministry
595
00:35:30,078 --> 00:35:34,657
that allows him to use the
Colosseum as a marketing tool.
596
00:35:34,658 --> 00:35:38,097
However he denies any such intention
597
00:35:38,098 --> 00:35:41,757
and indeed thinks more private
entrepreneurs should be
598
00:35:41,758 --> 00:35:46,069
trying to help the Italian
state at this difficult time.
599
00:35:51,950 --> 00:35:53,900
I would advise my friends,
600
00:35:53,901 --> 00:35:56,691
the Italian entrepreneurs, if they haven't
601
00:35:56,692 --> 00:35:59,691
already thought about it to take a minute
602
00:35:59,692 --> 00:36:02,591
to think about what they can do for this country.
603
00:36:02,592 --> 00:36:05,351
Because if we do things as entrepreneurs
604
00:36:05,352 --> 00:36:09,632
it has a practical effect because things get done.
605
00:36:11,784 --> 00:36:14,683
The sponsor, who in this case is Della Valle,
606
00:36:14,684 --> 00:36:16,643
or whoever else it might be,
607
00:36:16,644 --> 00:36:18,763
wouldn't have been able to give more,
608
00:36:18,764 --> 00:36:21,263
doesn't necessarily have to give more,
609
00:36:21,264 --> 00:36:23,383
because what is made available
610
00:36:23,384 --> 00:36:25,743
is the cost of the work to be done.
611
00:36:25,744 --> 00:36:28,663
It doesn't have to cover the entire monument.
612
00:36:28,664 --> 00:36:30,943
Nobody gave away the Colosseum
613
00:36:30,944 --> 00:36:33,854
in terms of image or property to anyone.
614
00:36:34,726 --> 00:36:37,226
Of course the Colosseum remains
615
00:36:37,227 --> 00:36:39,446
the property of the state of Italy.
616
00:36:39,447 --> 00:36:41,956
Nothing has been sold.
617
00:36:41,957 --> 00:36:45,577
And private sponsorship doesn't take over
618
00:36:45,578 --> 00:36:50,417
the protection, and monitoring,
and so on, of the Colosseum.
619
00:36:50,418 --> 00:36:53,278
The ultimate decision and the ultimate control
620
00:36:53,279 --> 00:36:55,698
remains in the hands of the Ministry of Culture
621
00:36:55,699 --> 00:36:57,198
and the superintendencies.
622
00:36:57,199 --> 00:37:00,118
As long as that happens, and
you have the transparency
623
00:37:00,119 --> 00:37:02,338
so that people know where the funds are going,
624
00:37:02,339 --> 00:37:05,728
I think it's a win win situation for everybody.
625
00:37:05,729 --> 00:37:09,203
One thing everyone can agree on however
626
00:37:09,204 --> 00:37:11,503
is the pressing need to preserve
627
00:37:11,504 --> 00:37:13,731
what is perhaps the most iconic
628
00:37:13,732 --> 00:37:16,992
and haunting image of ancient Rome.
629
00:37:19,772 --> 00:37:21,371
The Colosseum is one
630
00:37:21,372 --> 00:37:23,951
of the wonders of the ancient world
631
00:37:23,952 --> 00:37:28,452
and still stands 2,000 years after it was built.
632
00:37:29,523 --> 00:37:32,249
Amphitheaters like this one were venues
633
00:37:32,250 --> 00:37:34,349
for gladiatorial entertainment
634
00:37:34,350 --> 00:37:37,589
in every Roman city of the empire.
635
00:37:37,590 --> 00:37:40,869
There were no less than 230 in the
636
00:37:40,870 --> 00:37:43,760
four corners of the Roman world.
637
00:37:44,767 --> 00:37:49,767
Rome's Colosseum is the largest
arena still standing today.
638
00:37:50,927 --> 00:37:54,682
But it is in need of imminent repairs.
639
00:37:54,683 --> 00:37:59,683
Man and nature have eroded
vast portions of the monument
640
00:37:59,986 --> 00:38:04,646
though it still attracts
millions of admirers every year.
641
00:38:05,806 --> 00:38:08,005
Restorers are diligently cleaning
642
00:38:08,006 --> 00:38:10,845
and consolidating the ancient arena
643
00:38:10,846 --> 00:38:14,727
taking care not to destroy the marks of history.
644
00:38:15,607 --> 00:38:17,897
Beneath the floor of the Roman arena
645
00:38:17,898 --> 00:38:21,877
was the empire's most powerful propaganda machine:
646
00:38:21,878 --> 00:38:25,917
the equipment used for stunning visual effects
647
00:38:25,918 --> 00:38:28,718
that wowed the public over and over.
648
00:38:32,078 --> 00:38:34,417
The Colosseum's underground cellar's
649
00:38:34,418 --> 00:38:38,297
represent the emperor's machine for illusions.
650
00:38:38,298 --> 00:38:40,877
Obviously the scenery was impressive,
651
00:38:40,878 --> 00:38:43,117
just as the shows which were given
652
00:38:43,118 --> 00:38:45,937
to the citizens by the emperors to maintain
653
00:38:45,938 --> 00:38:49,678
or increase their popularity was spectacular.
654
00:38:52,928 --> 00:38:54,678
The challenges of opening
655
00:38:54,679 --> 00:38:57,178
this maze of tunnels and niches
656
00:38:57,179 --> 00:39:00,239
to the public however are enormous.
657
00:39:05,860 --> 00:39:08,910
Before restoring the cellars of the arena
658
00:39:08,911 --> 00:39:11,810
a lot of work needs to be done.
659
00:39:11,811 --> 00:39:14,670
Above all draining the waters.
660
00:39:14,671 --> 00:39:16,930
We must never forget that there's a river
661
00:39:16,931 --> 00:39:19,430
that runs under the Colosseum,
662
00:39:19,431 --> 00:39:22,971
and the water floods the
Colosseum when it rains heavily.
663
00:39:32,987 --> 00:39:34,766
The controversy surrounding
664
00:39:34,767 --> 00:39:37,686
the private funding of urgent restoration work
665
00:39:37,687 --> 00:39:39,426
on the monument has opened
666
00:39:39,427 --> 00:39:41,687
a whole new discussion on how
667
00:39:41,688 --> 00:39:45,068
Italy manages its cultural heritage.
668
00:39:46,748 --> 00:39:48,427
All our clients when they buy
669
00:39:48,428 --> 00:39:51,188
our products somehow they also contribute
670
00:39:51,189 --> 00:39:54,918
to the renovation of the Colosseum.
671
00:39:54,919 --> 00:39:57,700
Private sponsorship is not the solution
672
00:39:57,701 --> 00:40:00,500
it is a solution, and it's a great solution.
673
00:40:00,501 --> 00:40:01,740
But there are so many other things
674
00:40:01,741 --> 00:40:03,960
that need to happen and can happen.
675
00:40:03,961 --> 00:40:05,860
Hopefully with this private sponsorship
676
00:40:05,861 --> 00:40:07,460
it's jump-starting the conversation
677
00:40:07,461 --> 00:40:09,082
it's getting more people involved,
678
00:40:09,083 --> 00:40:11,562
more levels of participation involved.
679
00:40:11,563 --> 00:40:13,723
That's what I'd like to see.
680
00:40:15,043 --> 00:40:17,023
Italy holds three-quarters
681
00:40:17,024 --> 00:40:19,823
of the world's great works of art.
682
00:40:19,824 --> 00:40:23,163
And yet in the throes of economic crisis
683
00:40:23,164 --> 00:40:25,843
the Italian state is expected to maintain
684
00:40:25,844 --> 00:40:30,484
this cultural heritage of the
whole of humanity alone.
685
00:40:32,955 --> 00:40:35,734
In such a difficult moment for our country,
686
00:40:35,735 --> 00:40:39,134
for the whole world economy but also in Italy,
687
00:40:39,135 --> 00:40:42,435
I'd say that the situation we see is very worrying
688
00:40:42,436 --> 00:40:44,175
and we hope it will pass.
689
00:40:44,176 --> 00:40:47,975
Well in moments like this the most famous people,
690
00:40:47,976 --> 00:40:50,195
the strongest companies, I think they should
691
00:40:50,196 --> 00:40:53,075
place themselves at their country's disposal.
692
00:40:53,076 --> 00:40:55,635
They should do what they can and they should do it
693
00:40:55,636 --> 00:40:58,415
without asking for anything back.
694
00:40:58,416 --> 00:41:03,088
The message is what can we
do for our country today?
695
00:41:05,518 --> 00:41:09,628
Across Italy major monuments in need of repair
696
00:41:09,629 --> 00:41:11,508
are being restored with the help
697
00:41:11,509 --> 00:41:15,188
of discreetly branded sponsorship.
698
00:41:15,189 --> 00:41:18,528
The iconic Trevi Fountain, made famous
699
00:41:18,529 --> 00:41:21,908
in the Fellini film La Dolce Vita,
700
00:41:21,909 --> 00:41:24,588
is today covered in scaffolding.
701
00:41:24,589 --> 00:41:27,988
And workers are chipping away at calcium deposits
702
00:41:27,989 --> 00:41:31,388
to reveal the original sculptures.
703
00:41:31,389 --> 00:41:36,389
Again, a major fashion house
made the restoration possible.
704
00:41:36,820 --> 00:41:39,319
The Colosseum is no different
705
00:41:39,320 --> 00:41:42,059
say those who support the initiative.
706
00:41:42,060 --> 00:41:44,759
If you maintain it, if you invest in it,
707
00:41:44,760 --> 00:41:46,819
if you shore it up because it does need help,
708
00:41:46,820 --> 00:41:48,799
this won't stand here forever on its own,
709
00:41:48,800 --> 00:41:50,839
you will have something that can
710
00:41:50,840 --> 00:41:54,059
be around as long as humans are around.
711
00:41:54,060 --> 00:41:57,719
But you need that investment, you need that care,
712
00:41:57,720 --> 00:42:00,200
and the Colosseum is finally getting it.
713
00:42:01,160 --> 00:42:02,560
Given the sheer breadth
714
00:42:02,561 --> 00:42:06,260
of Italy's cultural heritage and the dire need
715
00:42:06,261 --> 00:42:09,360
of protecting it for future generations
716
00:42:09,361 --> 00:42:13,660
a new law was passed in 2004 allowing for several
717
00:42:13,661 --> 00:42:17,061
new types of public-private partnerships.
718
00:42:21,421 --> 00:42:22,900
In actual fact the role
719
00:42:22,901 --> 00:42:25,960
of the private comes in two forms.
720
00:42:25,961 --> 00:42:29,831
Either via a donation or via a sponsorship.
721
00:42:29,832 --> 00:42:32,511
Surely the sponsorship of the Colosseum
722
00:42:32,512 --> 00:42:35,532
is one of the best examples of this.
723
00:42:41,252 --> 00:42:44,271
If every big Italian brand adopts
724
00:42:44,272 --> 00:42:46,711
a monument very soon there could
725
00:42:46,712 --> 00:42:49,611
be renovation work all over the country,
726
00:42:49,612 --> 00:42:53,311
lightening the load on the staff
of the Cultural Ministry.
727
00:42:53,312 --> 00:42:56,351
The question is how far the sponsors
728
00:42:56,352 --> 00:42:58,271
will be allowed to go to recover
729
00:42:58,272 --> 00:43:01,331
the investment in global communication.
730
00:43:01,332 --> 00:43:04,051
As far as the Cultural Ministry is concerned
731
00:43:04,052 --> 00:43:09,052
the issue is simple what will
it cost to get the job done?
732
00:43:14,016 --> 00:43:16,015
The entrepreneur Della Valle,
733
00:43:16,016 --> 00:43:20,135
the sponsor, contributed a sum of 25 million Euros,
734
00:43:20,136 --> 00:43:23,395
which is the sum needed to carry out all the work
735
00:43:23,396 --> 00:43:26,575
that had to be done to save
the facade of the monument,
736
00:43:26,576 --> 00:43:28,655
to create a welcome center,
737
00:43:28,656 --> 00:43:31,475
and to do the work inside the monument.
738
00:43:31,476 --> 00:43:34,995
It was budgeted at 25 million Euros
739
00:43:34,996 --> 00:43:37,995
so what the sponsor offered is exactly the sum
740
00:43:37,996 --> 00:43:41,176
that needs to be spent to do the work.
741
00:43:45,456 --> 00:43:47,555
What I would like is to be recognized
742
00:43:47,556 --> 00:43:49,735
as having shown that the time has come
743
00:43:49,736 --> 00:43:54,376
to stand up and work for our
country and not complain.
744
00:43:55,976 --> 00:43:57,855
Restoring one of the wonders
745
00:43:57,856 --> 00:44:00,855
of the world is no small feat.
746
00:44:00,856 --> 00:44:03,135
But it is not the first time the Colosseum
747
00:44:03,136 --> 00:44:06,415
has been restored or re-branded
748
00:44:06,416 --> 00:44:08,576
and probably won't be the last.
749
00:44:10,476 --> 00:44:13,035
The restorer is like a doctor
750
00:44:13,036 --> 00:44:15,575
and serves society to maintain
751
00:44:15,576 --> 00:44:18,495
the monument memento over time.
752
00:44:18,496 --> 00:44:21,816
And this gives enormous satisfaction.
753
00:44:24,696 --> 00:44:25,895
Never forget the prophecy
754
00:44:25,896 --> 00:44:29,335
of the venerable Bede, an English monk who said,
755
00:44:29,336 --> 00:44:32,995
"As long as the Colosseum stands Rome will stand."
756
00:44:32,996 --> 00:44:36,475
"When the Colosseum falls Rome will fall."
757
00:44:36,476 --> 00:44:40,366
"And when Rome falls so will the world."
758
00:44:48,968 --> 00:44:50,898
The whole story of the world's
759
00:44:50,899 --> 00:44:55,899
most famous stage is a constant work in progress,
760
00:44:57,579 --> 00:45:01,750
an ongoing saga of epic proportions.
60544
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