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(upbeat music)
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There's so many questions that animals
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help us understand about ourselves.
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How does intelligence happen?
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How does it evolve?
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Why do some species solve problems one way
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and other species solve problems another way?
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If you wanna understand something that we do as a species,
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that we're really curious, why do we do it?
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Animals often have answers for us.
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It might be because we share an ancestor,
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it might be that animals can help us answer
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why natural selection or evolution would have favored
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the thing that we're interested in explaining.
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Animals have something to say about all those questions.
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Is a dolphin smarter than a chimpanzee?
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Is a dog smarter than a cat?
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Ryan Hare is an evolutionary anthropologist
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at Duke University, coauthor of a new book called
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The Genius of Dogs: How Dogs Are Smarter Than You Think.
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Good boy, Congo, come on.
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This way.
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Well probably the reason I study animal psychology
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is 'cause of my pet dog growing up.
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His name was Oreo, and just like every dog owner,
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he'd look deeply into your eyes
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and you look deeply in his eyes
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and you'd wanna know what he was thinking.
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This is my guy now, his name's Congo.
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What's going on through his mind
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and how does he think about us
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and how does he solve problems?
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That's what endlessly fascinates me.
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Good boy.
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Cognitive evolution is just like
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any other type of evolution.
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It means that there's changes in the brain
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that lead to changes in how animals behave,
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solve problems, interact with one another.
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And the study of cognitive evolution is trying
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to understand well why do those changes happen?
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What are the forces that drive those changes?
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So if we're talking about where we are
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in the history of understanding cognitive evolution,
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to the exclusion of humans, I would say we're in an infancy.
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I think we know a lot about what is it that makes
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human psychology different from animal psychology?
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I think we've got a pretty good handle on that.
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Where we know nothing is how psychology evolves,
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how cognition involves in the animal world.
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There's been so little attention and effort,
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and the reason is because every university
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has zero to one people who studies animal psychology.
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So it's very hard if you're doing comparative cognition,
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you're comparing different species to one another,
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but you're the only person there.
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Who are you gonna compare with?
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(melodic music)
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So we're gonna link up everybody all over the world,
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so that we can work together and compare animals.
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We're gonna make a community.
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There are different forms of intelligence on this planet.
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For me intelligence is solving problems
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that are gonna help you survive and reproduce.
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Almost certainly they involve your brain
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that is representing, storing and processing
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information you're taking in.
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If it involves those things, it's intelligent to me.
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There's been discovery after discovery,
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where animals that people would not have thought
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could do anything particularly interesting
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have amazing types of intelligence,
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and often challenge even our greatest abilities.
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Elephants have ultrasonic frequencies of communication
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that we can't hear.
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There's ultraviolet perception in many animals.
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We can't see it, but animals that are
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pollinating those flowers do.
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That's the first step, is define diverse range
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of perceptual abilities that then problem solving
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and flexibility is built on top of.
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The best example, and I love to say this to people
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when they, you know, how can you say that
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an animal could be more intelligent than a human?
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And I always say well how'd you do
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on the echolocation test?
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Obviously you'd be hopeless.
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We don't have the ability to echolocate.
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Echolocation has evolved multiple times in mammals.
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Bats can echolocate, and so can cetaceans.
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Why is it that that type of intelligence evolved
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in those species and it did not evolve in our lineage?
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Self control, it's vital to almost everything
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that we do as humans or that animals do.
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Whether it's a social decision, what should I say next?
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What should I do next?
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To what should I eat?
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Where should I go?
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All of those decisions involve self control.
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The first time we brought a lot of people together
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to work on a problem of cognitive evolution,
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we were able to present 36 different species
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with a problem that we thought would measure self control.
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You have to resist making a response
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that seems like the obvious solution to a problem.
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What we found was that animals that have more complex diets,
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so basically just eat different types of food,
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were the species that did better on the self control task.
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Species that had a much narrower diet,
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like a panda eating bamboo, versus say a great ape,
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all apes, humans included,
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eat hundreds of different species.
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And so the idea there is perhaps when you're
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having to make decisions as you're foraging
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about what to eat when.
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And you have to sort of inhibit
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oh well there's food here and I'm hungry,
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but actually I'm not gonna get as much
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out of the thing I'm sitting in front of,
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I should move to the next source,
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where I'm gonna actually get a bigger payoff.
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And so you have to show some self control.
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If you're just a panda and you're just always eating bamboo,
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I mean there's always bamboo, you just eat the bamboo.
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There's really no need for self control.
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So that gave us a hint that really the force
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that may be driving changes in self control
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in evolution is diet, perhaps more than
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the complexity in the political machinations
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going on in animals' social lives.
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Technically, chimpanzees and bonobos are more
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closely related to us than they are to gorillas.
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For all intents and purposes they look identical.
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Chimpanzees are incredible at making tools
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and using tools to get food that
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they couldn't have access to.
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It ends up that bonobos aren't that good at it.
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Flip side is that bonobos are incredibly empathic,
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they're very sensitive to the emotions of others
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and get very upset when others are upset.
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Chimpanzees tend to be more aggressive,
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especially male chimpanzees.
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They will murder each other.
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Females can be coerced and beaten in horrible ways.
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Bonobos really don't do any of those things.
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So you have these two close relatives
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where which one's more intelligent?
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Is it a chimp or a bonobo you might ask me,
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and what I would suggest is well that's the wrong question.
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The question is what are these different species'
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cognitive profiles?
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And so I've spent a decade comparing chimpanzees
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and bonobos trying to understand what is
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the psychology that produces the different behavior?
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And think what we found in bonobos is
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that they are actually attracted to strangers,
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they actually have a preference for strangers.
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Whereas chimpanzees are very fearful of strangers,
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and that really is the psychology that's leading
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to a lot of these behavioral differences in aggression.
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(melodic music)
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Friendliness was not something that I had
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on top of my mind as something that
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drove cognitive evolution.
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It certainly was the animals that taught me that.
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We presented chimpanzees and bonobos
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with a cooperative problem.
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Okay one, two, three, go!
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They had to pull a tray using ropes
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to be able to eat food,
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and while we've seen so much evidence
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for cooperation in wild chimpanzees,
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when we began studying cooperation in captive settings,
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you're trying to use experimental approaches,
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we had failed miserably to get chimpanzees to cooperate.
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Well we finally realized, the reason we couldn't
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get them to cooperate in captivity
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was because it really mattered who they were with,
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and if they were with somebody that they
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would have a friendly relationship with,
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boom, they could cooperate instantly.
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But if there was somebody that they were intolerant of,
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they could never cooperate.
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And we could turn on and off their cooperative ability
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just by rearranging them with different individuals.
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Bonobos are far more tolerant than chimpanzees.
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We gave them the same set of problems
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but they'd never seen it before.
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They didn't have any knowledge.
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And it didn't matter who we paired them with,
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they solved it spontaneously.
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They were friends and they were tolerant
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so they could do it together.
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Yay, bonobo!
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So it really is, when you put them in direct opposition,
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knowledge versus tolerance in a cooperative task.
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Tolerance wins every time.
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In many ways, bonobos are sort of like
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the domesticated dog of our ape family.
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Chimpanzees would be more wolf-like.
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And comparing everything from their morphology,
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their behavior, their psychology, their physiology,
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many of the differences we see between wolves and dogs
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we see between bonobos and chimpanzees.
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And why is that?
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Why is it that you have these two
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distantly related pair of species
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that have become so similar in the way
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that they've changed from one another.
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What was the process that drove it?
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We think it's the same evolutionary force,
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and we think that force is selection for friendliness.
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(melodic music)
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If you were to ask me the species that
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is most like a human infant in its ability
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to communicate with us, it's not organisms
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like a chimpanzee or bonobo that have much larger brains
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and are obviously closer relatives to us.
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It's the humble dog that is so good at this.
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Speak.
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(dog barking)
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Hush, hush, hush, hush.
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They share an evolutionary history with us
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for the last 25 to 40,000 years.
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Dogs evolved when interacting with hunter gatherers
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and then you look at the effect
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that selection for friendliness has,
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it doesn't take much to then imagine that
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as humans start living at higher density,
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that what do we do amazingly well is create garbage,
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and the garbage that we create
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is a new ecological niche.
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If you're a wolf they can sneak in and get close
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and take advantage of the resources that humans
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are producing as we start living at higher density.
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Ooh, you no longer have to get kicked in the face
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and chase whatever you eat, it's gonna be a reliable,
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sustainable source of food.
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The selection though that's gonna be acting on you
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is you're no longer afraid of humans,
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you're attracted to humans.
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And so what we think happened is over many generations
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there was this really strong selection
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for attraction to humans and friendliness
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and a lack of aggression.
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All of those things put together,
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understanding our evolution,
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understanding the effect of domestication,
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and the fact that they have jobs,
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there are dogs that are helping detect endangered animals,
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there are dogs that are helping people with
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mental and physical disabilities,
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there are dogs that are checking for bed bugs,
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finding cancers.
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Makes dogs really one of the most interesting
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and important species to study.
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In many ways dogs have converged and become
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more like people, more like humans than wolves.
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If you're a domesticated dog you're really good
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at using human gestures.
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Understanding gestures is this amazing thing.
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It seems to develop extremely early in dogs.
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Of course the reason we got interested in this
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is because it's the skill that is so important
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and early emerging in our own species as kids
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start to learn culture and pick up language skills.
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Using pointing gestures or using
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the direction that we look to infer
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what we want or where we want them to go,
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it lasts throughout their lives,
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it doesn't decline as other types of cognitive functions do.
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It's kind of remarkable.
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(melodic music)
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It's often misreported as some dogs have been
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trained to have a large vocabulary.
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That's not the finding.
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Chase.
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Chase.
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Frisbee.
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Take Frisbee.
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The finding is that they, with one trial learning,
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are able to label an object, a novel object,
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and remember that label for a week or a month later.
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But that's not the surprise.
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If you were to show one of those dogs a picture
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and say get this object in the picture,
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they can go get it.
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Now that may sound like no big deal,
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but that is effectively symbolic representation.
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It's one of the hallmarks of human language acquisition.
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When they told me they were doing that I thought
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there is no way a dog is gonna do that,
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I can't even believe you're trying.
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But yeah, go for it.
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And not only did they do it, they did it really well.
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Lessons from dogs.
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Be nice.
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(laughing)
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Dont bite.
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I mean I think the thing that everybody loves about dogs
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is they're just always so optimistic
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that now's gonna be the fun time,
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and then just so forgiving and loving.
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I hope I can be the person my dog thinks I am.
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I think we'd all be better if we could manage it.
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Good boy.
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(melodic music)
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I think the thing I'm most excited about
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with this diverse intelligence grant is I think
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we're gonna discover new types of intelligence.
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I think there's species that have been ignored
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or have never been studied in how they
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interact with the world psychologically.
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We're gonna find intelligence, flexibility,
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sophistication, where we least expect it,
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and the hope is that this effort will get us crawling,
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and maybe even running if we're lucky.
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(melodic music)
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