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NARRATOR:
Our planet is capable
of unleashing extreme chaos.
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Volcanoes,
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earthquakes,
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hurricanes,
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and floods
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can cause untold devastation.
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(people yelling)
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We may think we've seen
the worst
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Mother Nature can throw at us,
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00:00:23,591 --> 00:00:27,493
but scientists struggling
to understand these disasters
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are discovering evidence
that even more extreme events
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have struck in the past.
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JEAN-CHRISTOPHE KOMOROWSKI:
So this is about 13 times
more powerful
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than the Pompeii eruption.
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NARRATOR:
They're uncovering clues
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that the worst catastrophes
in history
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could strike again.
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¶ ¶
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Thousands of years ago,
floods of unimaginable violence.
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This water came up 800 feet.
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That's huge.
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NARRATOR:
Floods powerful enough
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to blast through miles
of solid rock
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in just hours.
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But how?
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VIC BAKER:
Everything in this landscape
was screaming
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in terms of its signs or clues
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that this was made
by catastrophic flooding.
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(water rushing)
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NARRATOR:
The clues to some of the biggest
floods ever are here,
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carved in mysterious
rock formations,
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buried beneath the waves,
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or hidden in plain sight,
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all around the world.
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¶ ¶
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Now, scientists find new clues
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to understand
our volatile Earth...
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¶ ¶
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(small rocks falling)
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And unravel the secrets
of "Killer Floods,"
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right now, on "NOVA."
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¶ ¶
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(water rushing)
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¶ ¶
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NARRATOR:
Floods.
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Events of such violence,
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they turn oceans, rivers,
and lakes
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into devastating walls of water.
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On average, around the world,
these powerful surges
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kill 25,000 people every year.
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In 2004, a deadly tsunami
hits Southeast Asia,
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leaving over 200,000 people
dead,
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and $10 billion worth of damage
in its wake.
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More recently, in 2017,
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Hurricane Harvey
slams into Houston.
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Heavy rains cause catastrophic
flooding,
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killing more than 70,
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and leaving tens of thousands
homeless.
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That same year,
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a third of Bangladesh
is submerged by flooding
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which extended
throughout South Asia,
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including Nepal, India,
and Pakistan.
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The flooding, caused by
an especially strong monsoon,
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is thought to be the most severe
in the last hundred years.
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But could Mother Nature
have unleashed floods
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that were even bigger
and more destructive
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in the past?
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That's what a series
of discoveries is suggesting.
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Scientists are unearthing
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what looks like
the scars of cataclysmic floods
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that dug deep into the rock,
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reshaping the surface
of the Earth itself.
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MIKAEL ATTAL:
It completely changed
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the face of the landscape.
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BAKER:
No one has ever witnessed
anything
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even close in scale.
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NARRATOR:
Across the world,
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three far-flung locations
share an eerie similarity.
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In the United States,
16,000 square miles
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of dry canyons
and bizarre rock formations
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cover the Northwest.
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(water rushing)
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In Iceland,
a 300-foot-deep gorge
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appears to have been ripped out
in an instant.
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And off the coast of Britain,
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a network of mysterious canyons
carved deep into the sea bed
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could reveal how this channel
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first separated
what is now Britain from France.
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Far from eroding gradually,
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there's evidence
that vast deluges
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tore out these landscapes in
the geological blink of an eye.
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But what could have triggered
such killer floods?
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And could one strike again?
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(water rushing)
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¶ ¶
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The trail of clues starts here,
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on the plains
of Washington state.
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A flat expanse, stretching
for hundreds of miles,
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until suddenly,
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the landscape changes.
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Flat fields give way
to sheer gorges,
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some almost a thousand feet
deep.
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Rock islands rise to the height
of 30-story buildings,
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while in other places,
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strange round depressions,
like gargantuan potholes,
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plunge 50 feet.
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These are the Scablands,
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named by settlers who thought
the formations
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resembled scabs or wounds
on the rocky terrain.
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¶ ¶
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Located over a hundred miles
east of Seattle,
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this mysterious landscape
covers an area
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around 16,000 square miles.
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(car running in distance)
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For over a century,
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geologists have been trying
to understand
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what forces created
the Scablands.
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BAKER:
When you encounter a landscape,
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it's not unlike a detective
encountering a crime scene.
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In the case of this landscape,
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there are features
that act like clues.
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¶ ¶
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NARRATOR:
But spotting those clues
takes a trained eye.
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(helicopter whirring)
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¶ ¶
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BAKER:
You can't really get
a sense of this area
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unless you get up high.
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¶ ¶
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This part of the Scablands
is, like, 30, 40 miles across.
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¶ ¶
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It's on a mega scale.
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¶ ¶
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NARRATOR:
It's the kind of scale that
first led geologists
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to suspect that the Scablands
had formed slowly,
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eroded over millions of years
by rivers, wind, or ice.
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(ice grinding)
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During past ice ages,
as temperatures plummeted,
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giant ice sheets and glaciers
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00:07:02,456 --> 00:07:04,523
carved deep valleys
through solid rock.
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¶ ¶
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Like these, in Glacier
National Park, in Montana.
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¶ ¶
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And rivers,
scouring rock over eons,
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helped carve some of the most
dramatic landscapes on Earth,
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like the Grand Canyon
in Colorado.
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¶ ¶
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But mapping sediments
left behind by the ice sheet
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when it melted 12,000 years ago,
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shows the ice only made it
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to the northern edge
of the Scablands.
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¶ ¶
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And Vic Baker's bird's eye view
reveals
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that fast-flowing water
was the culprit.
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¶ ¶
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The clue?
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This curved canyon.
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BAKER:
Looking at this from the air,
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you can see that the shape
is like a horseshoe,
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which is what forms
in waterfalls.
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NARRATOR:
Niagara Falls
and many big waterfalls
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have a similar horseshoe shape.
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¶ ¶
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For that reason, this canyon
is called the Dry Falls.
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¶ ¶
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But stretching
three and a half miles,
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this formation is five times
the span of Niagara
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and twice as tall.
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BAKER:
The cliffs behind me
are 400 feet high.
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Niagara Falls would fit
just within the alcove here.
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There's a similar-sized alcove
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and there's an even bigger one
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that extends many miles
to the east.
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¶ ¶
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NARRATOR:
These are the most extensive
falls, wet or dry, known today.
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And in a valley below,
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Vic finds another clue
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that vast amounts of water
once flowed here.
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¶ ¶
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Features that look
like sinkholes, or potholes,
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often found along the bottom
of turbulent rivers.
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But these potholes
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are super-sized.
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¶ ¶
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BAKER:
You can see it's maybe
50 feet deep or so.
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¶ ¶
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Potholes you see
in a normal river
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are about the size of a person.
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¶ ¶
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Whereas this would hold
multiple elephants.
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¶ ¶
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NARRATOR:
To Vic, all the evidence
points to flowing water
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on a massive scale.
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But there is no water
flowing here now.
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¶ ¶
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Today, the largest rivers
in the region
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are the Snake and the Columbia.
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¶ ¶
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00:10:01,101 --> 00:10:03,034
But could they
have played a role?
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00:10:03,103 --> 00:10:07,672
BAKER:
The Columbia River lies
about 30 miles to the north
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00:10:07,741 --> 00:10:10,375
and isn't big enough
to make this kind of feature.
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¶ ¶
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NARRATOR:
The Snake River, as well,
is simply too small
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to carve out potholes
and waterfalls on this scale.
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To get such an immense volume
of water so fast,
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we need something spectacular
to happen.
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NARRATOR:
So where did the water
come from?
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To answer this question,
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scientists are looking
at a distant landscape
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3,500 miles away.
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¶ ¶
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Iceland.
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¶ ¶
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00:10:45,946 --> 00:10:50,448
This island, on the edge
of the Arctic Circle,
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00:10:50,517 --> 00:10:53,952
is a land of fire and ice.
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¶ ¶
216
00:10:57,124 --> 00:10:59,658
(water rushing)
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00:10:59,726 --> 00:11:03,361
In its northeast corner
are scars on the landscape
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00:11:03,430 --> 00:11:07,232
that bear a striking resemblance
to the Washington Scablands.
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00:11:07,300 --> 00:11:10,835
¶ ¶
220
00:11:10,904 --> 00:11:14,139
Sheer cliffs over 300 feet high.
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¶ ¶
222
00:11:17,544 --> 00:11:19,644
A towering rock island.
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¶ ¶
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00:11:23,283 --> 00:11:27,519
This is the Ásbyrgi Canyon.
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¶ ¶
226
00:11:33,060 --> 00:11:36,695
And like scientists
in the Scablands,
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00:11:36,763 --> 00:11:39,664
geomorphologist Mikael Attal
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00:11:39,733 --> 00:11:43,702
wants to understand
how it was created.
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¶ ¶
230
00:11:47,074 --> 00:11:48,473
This really looks
like a dry waterfall.
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00:11:48,542 --> 00:11:50,642
¶ ¶
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00:11:50,711 --> 00:11:52,610
It's as if
there was a big waterfall here
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00:11:52,679 --> 00:11:54,312
and it's not there anymore.
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00:11:54,381 --> 00:11:57,882
¶ ¶
235
00:11:57,951 --> 00:12:01,953
NARRATOR:
Its so similar to the Dry Falls
in the Scablands,
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00:12:02,022 --> 00:12:06,758
Mikael suspects they were formed
in the same way.
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00:12:06,827 --> 00:12:10,862
¶ ¶
238
00:12:10,931 --> 00:12:14,099
But how long did it take?
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00:12:14,167 --> 00:12:20,438
¶ ¶
240
00:12:20,507 --> 00:12:25,176
To find out, he's using
a relatively new technique
241
00:12:25,245 --> 00:12:27,979
called surface-exposure dating.
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00:12:28,048 --> 00:12:30,482
¶ ¶
243
00:12:30,550 --> 00:12:33,184
Earth's surface
is constantly bombarded
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00:12:33,253 --> 00:12:36,588
by cosmic rays from outer space.
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00:12:36,656 --> 00:12:41,693
Rocks buried in the Earth
are sheltered from these rays,
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00:12:41,762 --> 00:12:45,263
but as soon as the rocks are
exposed, like in these cliffs,
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00:12:45,332 --> 00:12:48,266
cosmic rays collide with atoms
at their surface.
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00:12:48,335 --> 00:12:50,401
(water rushing)
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00:12:50,470 --> 00:12:52,137
The force of these collisions
250
00:12:52,205 --> 00:12:55,240
knocks neutrons and protons
out of the atoms
251
00:12:55,308 --> 00:12:58,076
and changes the elements
in the rocks.
252
00:13:00,413 --> 00:13:02,947
This leads to the formation
of new elements,
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00:13:03,016 --> 00:13:05,617
including a rare form of helium.
254
00:13:07,087 --> 00:13:10,088
These rare helium atoms
build up over time,
255
00:13:10,157 --> 00:13:13,291
at a predictable rate,
256
00:13:13,360 --> 00:13:15,360
so by measuring
their concentration,
257
00:13:15,428 --> 00:13:17,362
it's possible to determine
how long
258
00:13:17,430 --> 00:13:19,898
the rock has been exposed.
259
00:13:19,966 --> 00:13:21,966
It's like starting
the stopwatch.
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00:13:22,035 --> 00:13:24,969
¶ ¶
261
00:13:25,038 --> 00:13:30,408
NARRATOR:
Mikael samples rocks
from all over the Ásbyrgi Canyon
262
00:13:30,477 --> 00:13:35,313
and compares the dates
when they were exposed.
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00:13:35,382 --> 00:13:37,949
His results revealed
something surprising.
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00:13:38,018 --> 00:13:40,118
¶ ¶
265
00:13:40,187 --> 00:13:43,721
All the rocks in this area
were exposed at the same time,
266
00:13:43,790 --> 00:13:50,628
meaning that this entire canyon
was carved out all at once.
267
00:13:50,697 --> 00:13:53,498
ATTAL:
This canyon was created
in one event
268
00:13:53,567 --> 00:13:54,732
9,000 years ago.
269
00:13:54,801 --> 00:13:56,501
(wind howling)
270
00:13:56,570 --> 00:13:59,938
NARRATOR:
A slow-moving force,
like a glacier, erosion,
271
00:14:00,006 --> 00:14:02,473
or gradual uplift,
272
00:14:02,542 --> 00:14:04,542
would have exposed the rocks
along the canyon
273
00:14:04,611 --> 00:14:06,344
at different times.
274
00:14:06,413 --> 00:14:08,246
¶ ¶
275
00:14:08,315 --> 00:14:12,684
So it had to be a fast-paced
natural disaster,
276
00:14:12,752 --> 00:14:14,185
like a titanic flood.
277
00:14:14,254 --> 00:14:17,055
(water rushing)
278
00:14:17,123 --> 00:14:19,691
ATTAL:
It would have been a flood
on a scale
279
00:14:19,759 --> 00:14:21,259
far greater than anything
280
00:14:21,328 --> 00:14:23,595
that we have witnessed
in human history.
281
00:14:23,663 --> 00:14:28,499
(water rushing)
282
00:14:28,568 --> 00:14:32,070
NARRATOR:
Thousands of miles away,
scientists in the Scablands
283
00:14:32,138 --> 00:14:34,939
had zeroed in on the same idea.
284
00:14:35,008 --> 00:14:36,708
¶ ¶
285
00:14:36,776 --> 00:14:41,012
BAKER:
Everything in this landscape
was screaming,
286
00:14:41,081 --> 00:14:43,615
in terms of its signs or clues,
287
00:14:43,683 --> 00:14:45,984
that this was made
by catastrophic flooding.
288
00:14:46,052 --> 00:14:48,419
¶ ¶
289
00:14:48,488 --> 00:14:51,623
NARRATOR:
A flood big enough to carve
these vast landscapes
290
00:14:51,691 --> 00:14:55,159
seems impossible,
291
00:14:55,228 --> 00:14:59,430
but flowing water can be
surprisingly powerful.
292
00:14:59,499 --> 00:15:01,432
(man yelling in distance)
293
00:15:01,501 --> 00:15:03,635
The physical impact of a flood
294
00:15:03,703 --> 00:15:08,606
rises with every increase
in volume, speed, or duration,
295
00:15:08,675 --> 00:15:11,542
and it doesn't take a lot
to pack a punch.
296
00:15:11,611 --> 00:15:14,345
A flood just six inches deep
297
00:15:14,414 --> 00:15:16,648
can knock people
right off their feet,
298
00:15:16,716 --> 00:15:20,051
and a flow of just
seven miles an hour
299
00:15:20,120 --> 00:15:23,855
can have the same force
as a tornado.
300
00:15:23,924 --> 00:15:26,090
¶ ¶
301
00:15:26,159 --> 00:15:29,260
(water rushing)
302
00:15:29,329 --> 00:15:34,098
But is it possible to blast
through solid rock?
303
00:15:34,167 --> 00:15:39,203
Could a flood carve out
enormous features like these?
304
00:15:41,908 --> 00:15:46,978
(water rushing)
305
00:15:47,047 --> 00:15:48,613
The most destructive floods,
306
00:15:48,682 --> 00:15:53,151
from Hurricane Katrina in 2005
307
00:15:53,219 --> 00:15:57,555
to floods in Colorado in 2013,
308
00:15:57,624 --> 00:15:59,924
have etched painful memories.
309
00:15:59,993 --> 00:16:02,927
But they have done little
to make a mark
310
00:16:02,996 --> 00:16:04,762
on the underlying bedrock...
311
00:16:04,831 --> 00:16:08,066
¶ ¶
312
00:16:08,134 --> 00:16:10,501
Like we see here in Iceland
313
00:16:10,570 --> 00:16:13,104
and the Scablands.
314
00:16:13,173 --> 00:16:14,872
BAKER:
No one has ever witnessed
anything
315
00:16:14,941 --> 00:16:16,574
even close in scale.
316
00:16:16,643 --> 00:16:18,876
¶ ¶
317
00:16:18,945 --> 00:16:21,212
ATTAL:
We're talking about floods here
318
00:16:21,281 --> 00:16:23,381
that completely changed the face
of the planet.
319
00:16:23,450 --> 00:16:25,817
¶ ¶
320
00:16:25,885 --> 00:16:27,185
NARRATOR:
Floods powerful enough
321
00:16:27,253 --> 00:16:29,887
to carve whole canyons
out of bedrock
322
00:16:29,956 --> 00:16:31,956
are rarely seen.
323
00:16:32,025 --> 00:16:33,958
¶ ¶
324
00:16:34,027 --> 00:16:39,530
But in 2002, one was finally
caught on camera.
325
00:16:39,599 --> 00:16:40,631
(sirens blaring)
326
00:16:40,700 --> 00:16:42,500
On July 4,
327
00:16:42,569 --> 00:16:44,502
after a severe storm
struck central Texas,
328
00:16:44,571 --> 00:16:49,907
Canyon Lake Reservoir flooded,
overtopping its dam.
329
00:16:49,976 --> 00:16:51,109
At its peak,
330
00:16:51,177 --> 00:16:53,911
enough water to fill
an Olympic swimming pool
331
00:16:53,980 --> 00:16:57,648
poured over every two seconds.
332
00:16:57,717 --> 00:16:59,450
And when the floodwaters
subsided,
333
00:16:59,519 --> 00:17:02,820
they revealed a brand-new gorge,
334
00:17:02,889 --> 00:17:05,857
carved into the rock
23 feet deep
335
00:17:05,925 --> 00:17:08,393
and more than a mile long.
336
00:17:08,461 --> 00:17:11,596
This provided proof
that floods
337
00:17:11,664 --> 00:17:17,201
can transform whole landscapes
in a matter of days,
338
00:17:17,270 --> 00:17:19,871
as long as there's enough water
flowing quickly enough
339
00:17:19,939 --> 00:17:22,907
to produce the necessary force.
340
00:17:22,976 --> 00:17:25,877
(water rushing)
341
00:17:25,945 --> 00:17:27,979
(car tires grinding surface)
342
00:17:28,048 --> 00:17:29,380
And in Iceland,
343
00:17:29,449 --> 00:17:33,785
geophysicist Magnús Gudmundsson
thinks he's figured out
344
00:17:33,853 --> 00:17:36,888
how such a massive release
of water could occur.
345
00:17:36,956 --> 00:17:39,791
¶ ¶
346
00:17:39,859 --> 00:17:42,627
He's come a hundred miles
south of Ásbyrgi
347
00:17:42,695 --> 00:17:45,496
to the Vatnajökull ice cap,
348
00:17:45,565 --> 00:17:50,902
the largest glacier in Europe,
349
00:17:50,970 --> 00:17:54,806
similar to glaciers
at the end of the last ice age,
350
00:17:54,874 --> 00:17:58,376
9,000 years ago.
351
00:17:58,445 --> 00:18:03,181
GUDMUNDSSON:
This glacier is the only
possible source of water
352
00:18:03,249 --> 00:18:06,117
to create these floods
that made Ásbyrgi.
353
00:18:06,186 --> 00:18:08,386
¶ ¶
354
00:18:08,455 --> 00:18:11,756
NARRATOR:
In places, it's 3,000 feet deep,
355
00:18:11,825 --> 00:18:16,494
hundreds of cubic miles of water
locked up as ice.
356
00:18:16,563 --> 00:18:18,062
GUDMUNDSSON:
We have all this ice here,
357
00:18:18,131 --> 00:18:21,099
but how does it become a flood?
358
00:18:21,167 --> 00:18:24,502
NARRATOR:
Magnús believes the secret lies
359
00:18:24,571 --> 00:18:27,872
in what's hidden
beneath the ice cap:
360
00:18:27,941 --> 00:18:31,976
seven huge volcanoes.
361
00:18:32,045 --> 00:18:36,547
In 1996, one of these,
the volcano called Grímsvötn,
362
00:18:36,616 --> 00:18:40,151
erupted, triggering the most
catastrophic flood in Iceland
363
00:18:40,220 --> 00:18:42,086
for nearly a century.
364
00:18:42,155 --> 00:18:45,022
GUDMUNDSSON:
From time to time, we have
these very large eruptions
365
00:18:45,091 --> 00:18:50,128
that melt enormous amounts
of ice in a matter of hours.
366
00:18:50,196 --> 00:18:53,564
(water rushing)
367
00:18:53,633 --> 00:18:56,834
NARRATOR:
Almost a cubic mile
of meltwater from the eruption
368
00:18:56,903 --> 00:18:59,337
tore across the landscape
369
00:18:59,405 --> 00:19:02,607
at 16 times the rate
of Niagara Falls,
370
00:19:02,675 --> 00:19:07,311
destroying roads, bridges,
and power lines.
371
00:19:07,380 --> 00:19:11,582
¶ ¶
372
00:19:11,651 --> 00:19:16,287
So today, Magnús is monitoring
the volcano.
373
00:19:16,356 --> 00:19:20,324
¶ ¶
374
00:19:20,393 --> 00:19:23,561
By recording elevation
and movement,
375
00:19:23,630 --> 00:19:26,564
his team has discovered
there is a lake of meltwater
376
00:19:26,633 --> 00:19:28,933
beneath the ice.
377
00:19:29,002 --> 00:19:33,538
GUDMUNDSSON:
You're actually standing on an
ice shelf floating on the lake.
378
00:19:33,606 --> 00:19:39,443
¶ ¶
379
00:19:39,512 --> 00:19:42,380
NARRATOR:
Magnús now believes
that 9,000 years ago...
380
00:19:42,448 --> 00:19:44,749
(volcano erupting)
381
00:19:44,817 --> 00:19:47,285
...a giant eruption
under the ice cap
382
00:19:47,353 --> 00:19:50,354
unleashed a colossal flood
383
00:19:50,423 --> 00:19:53,858
powerful enough
to carve the Ásbyrgi Canyon.
384
00:19:53,927 --> 00:19:57,428
¶ ¶
385
00:19:57,497 --> 00:20:02,099
So could a chain of events
like this have also triggered
386
00:20:02,168 --> 00:20:06,003
a flood massive enough to carve
the Scablands in North America?
387
00:20:06,072 --> 00:20:08,072
(water rushing)
388
00:20:08,141 --> 00:20:13,911
¶ ¶
389
00:20:13,980 --> 00:20:17,014
Just a hundred miles
west of the Scablands
390
00:20:17,083 --> 00:20:19,250
are many active volcanoes,
391
00:20:19,319 --> 00:20:22,186
notably Mount St. Helens,
392
00:20:22,255 --> 00:20:24,388
partially covered in ice.
393
00:20:24,457 --> 00:20:25,957
¶ ¶
394
00:20:26,025 --> 00:20:30,628
(erupting loudly)
395
00:20:30,697 --> 00:20:34,899
In 1980,
Mount St. Helens erupted,
396
00:20:34,968 --> 00:20:39,804
releasing an enormous amount
of heat,
397
00:20:39,872 --> 00:20:42,440
enough to melt the ice
around its crater
398
00:20:42,508 --> 00:20:44,775
and trigger dramatic floods.
399
00:20:44,844 --> 00:20:49,380
¶ ¶
400
00:20:49,449 --> 00:20:53,818
But even if all the ice on this
volcano had suddenly melted...
401
00:20:53,886 --> 00:20:56,520
(water rushing)
402
00:20:56,589 --> 00:20:59,390
It would not be enough
403
00:20:59,459 --> 00:21:05,329
to carve out rock
over a 16,000-square-mile area.
404
00:21:05,398 --> 00:21:11,302
¶ ¶
405
00:21:13,339 --> 00:21:16,941
But what about in the past?
406
00:21:17,010 --> 00:21:20,845
To find out if ancient ice
were to blame,
407
00:21:20,913 --> 00:21:26,684
Vic Baker needs to find out
when the landscape was created
408
00:21:26,753 --> 00:21:29,954
with the technique
of surface-exposure dating
409
00:21:30,023 --> 00:21:30,921
used in Iceland.
410
00:21:30,990 --> 00:21:33,891
(tapping)
411
00:21:33,960 --> 00:21:37,361
Taking samples from all over
the Scablands,
412
00:21:37,430 --> 00:21:38,829
he discovers most of the rocks
413
00:21:38,898 --> 00:21:44,402
were exposed within a few
thousand years of each other,
414
00:21:44,470 --> 00:21:48,472
and one date in particular
stands out.
415
00:21:48,541 --> 00:21:50,441
¶ ¶
416
00:21:50,510 --> 00:21:52,276
BAKER:
Many of the dates we get
417
00:21:52,345 --> 00:21:54,645
are in the range
of about 16,000 years ago.
418
00:21:54,714 --> 00:21:56,314
¶ ¶
419
00:21:56,382 --> 00:21:58,949
NARRATOR:
Although ice sheets covered
much of North America
420
00:21:59,018 --> 00:22:02,353
16,000 years ago,
421
00:22:02,422 --> 00:22:04,388
geologists believe
the ice stopped short
422
00:22:04,457 --> 00:22:07,925
of the volcanoes
of Washington state.
423
00:22:07,994 --> 00:22:10,795
¶ ¶
424
00:22:10,863 --> 00:22:13,798
The trail of clues
seemed to dry up...
425
00:22:13,866 --> 00:22:18,769
¶ ¶
426
00:22:18,838 --> 00:22:22,773
...until a surprising discovery
427
00:22:22,842 --> 00:22:28,112
200 miles east of the Scablands,
in Missoula, Montana.
428
00:22:28,181 --> 00:22:30,348
¶ ¶
429
00:22:30,416 --> 00:22:35,252
Here, geologist Larry Smith
is heading up into the hills,
430
00:22:35,321 --> 00:22:39,123
where he sees a series
of horizontal lines
431
00:22:39,192 --> 00:22:44,995
a thousand feet
above the valley floor.
432
00:22:45,064 --> 00:22:46,697
SMITH:
They look very much
433
00:22:46,766 --> 00:22:49,800
like they'd have been cut
into the hillside
434
00:22:49,869 --> 00:22:53,371
by waves beating
against the rock.
435
00:22:53,439 --> 00:22:58,075
These lines are clearly
lake shorelines,
436
00:22:58,144 --> 00:23:03,814
and show that an immense
body of water temporarily filled
437
00:23:03,883 --> 00:23:06,317
these now-dry valleys
of western Montana.
438
00:23:06,386 --> 00:23:09,120
¶ ¶
439
00:23:09,188 --> 00:23:13,624
NARRATOR:
Tracing these ancient shorelines
for hundreds of miles,
440
00:23:13,693 --> 00:23:17,428
geologists have calculated that
these valleys were once filled
441
00:23:17,497 --> 00:23:21,198
by a body of water
larger than Lake Ontario.
442
00:23:21,267 --> 00:23:24,568
¶ ¶
443
00:23:24,637 --> 00:23:26,804
SMITH:
When there was a lake here
at 4,200 feet,
444
00:23:26,873 --> 00:23:30,074
we would have had a beach
right here in front of us,
445
00:23:30,143 --> 00:23:32,042
or a shoreline,
446
00:23:32,111 --> 00:23:36,447
and extending all the way across
to the other side of the valley,
447
00:23:36,516 --> 00:23:38,816
with a thousand feet of water
448
00:23:38,885 --> 00:23:41,986
over what is now
the city of Missoula.
449
00:23:42,054 --> 00:23:46,857
NARRATOR:
Geologists call it
Glacial Lake Missoula.
450
00:23:46,926 --> 00:23:51,162
And despite being 200 miles away
from the Scablands,
451
00:23:51,230 --> 00:23:53,297
Larry suspects it held
enough water
452
00:23:53,366 --> 00:23:55,399
to tear through the area.
453
00:23:55,468 --> 00:23:58,369
¶ ¶
454
00:23:58,438 --> 00:24:01,705
That is a vast amount of water,
455
00:24:01,774 --> 00:24:05,743
and if this lake drained
very rapidly,
456
00:24:05,812 --> 00:24:09,013
it would be fundamental
457
00:24:09,081 --> 00:24:11,449
to carving the channel
in Scabland.
458
00:24:11,517 --> 00:24:13,284
¶ ¶
459
00:24:13,352 --> 00:24:15,519
NARRATOR:
But today, there is
no lake here
460
00:24:15,588 --> 00:24:18,422
because the valley
is open-ended.
461
00:24:18,491 --> 00:24:20,458
¶ ¶
462
00:24:20,526 --> 00:24:25,429
So where are the formations
that held the water in place?
463
00:24:25,498 --> 00:24:27,765
¶ ¶
464
00:24:27,834 --> 00:24:29,233
SMITH:
So the question is, is
465
00:24:29,302 --> 00:24:33,771
where, when, and how did
a dam form to create this lake?
466
00:24:33,840 --> 00:24:35,606
¶ ¶
467
00:24:35,675 --> 00:24:37,141
NARRATOR:
Searching for clues,
468
00:24:37,210 --> 00:24:40,277
Larry travels back down
to Clark Fork,
469
00:24:40,346 --> 00:24:44,248
at the narrow end of the valley.
470
00:24:44,317 --> 00:24:46,984
He sees no signs of landslides
or rock falls
471
00:24:47,053 --> 00:24:49,620
that could have dammed the lake
in the past.
472
00:24:49,689 --> 00:24:55,459
But on the bare rocks, he spots
some tell-tale markings.
473
00:24:55,528 --> 00:24:59,129
SMITH:
You see scratches
within the rock,
474
00:24:59,198 --> 00:25:02,900
geologically it is impossible
475
00:25:02,969 --> 00:25:07,771
to smooth off rock and
scratch it without glacial ice.
476
00:25:07,840 --> 00:25:09,306
¶ ¶
477
00:25:09,375 --> 00:25:12,243
NARRATOR:
As the glacier moves,
rocks embedded within it
478
00:25:12,311 --> 00:25:16,046
scratch the bedrock
like sandpaper.
479
00:25:16,115 --> 00:25:19,550
So these scratches are evidence
that during the last ice age,
480
00:25:19,619 --> 00:25:23,487
a glacier moved
across this valley.
481
00:25:23,556 --> 00:25:25,623
And by mapping where rocks
have been scratched,
482
00:25:25,691 --> 00:25:29,960
geologists have discovered
that the Clark Fork River Valley
483
00:25:30,029 --> 00:25:32,763
was once blocked
by a giant finger of ice
484
00:25:32,832 --> 00:25:37,434
23 miles wide
and half a mile deep.
485
00:25:37,503 --> 00:25:41,805
Larry Smith believes this
ice dam created Lake Missoula.
486
00:25:41,874 --> 00:25:44,441
SMITH:
It blocked the drainage
487
00:25:44,510 --> 00:25:46,043
of the Clark Fork River.
488
00:25:46,112 --> 00:25:48,245
The water had nowhere else
to go,
489
00:25:48,314 --> 00:25:52,883
so backed up a lake behind this
large glacier in this valley.
490
00:25:52,952 --> 00:25:56,053
¶ ¶
491
00:25:56,122 --> 00:26:01,325
NARRATOR:
All the evidence points
to a massive reservoir of water
492
00:26:01,394 --> 00:26:06,597
held in place
by a giant dam of ice,
493
00:26:06,666 --> 00:26:07,965
a lake large enough
494
00:26:08,034 --> 00:26:11,035
to have carved out the canyons
of the Scablands...
495
00:26:11,103 --> 00:26:14,071
(water lapping gently)
496
00:26:14,140 --> 00:26:18,108
...if it were released
in one catastrophic event.
497
00:26:18,177 --> 00:26:20,811
(water rushing)
498
00:26:20,880 --> 00:26:27,051
¶ ¶
499
00:26:27,119 --> 00:26:29,687
(birds chirping,
insects buzzing)
500
00:26:29,755 --> 00:26:32,089
The idea that there
had once been a lake here
501
00:26:32,158 --> 00:26:33,891
that had suddenly drained
502
00:26:33,960 --> 00:26:36,360
also explains one of the other
striking features
503
00:26:36,429 --> 00:26:39,597
of the valley floor--
504
00:26:39,665 --> 00:26:42,399
giant ripples.
505
00:26:42,468 --> 00:26:46,904
¶ ¶
506
00:26:46,973 --> 00:26:50,541
SMITH:
These straight crested hills
are current ripples
507
00:26:50,610 --> 00:26:54,178
that show water flowing
from where we're standing
508
00:26:54,246 --> 00:26:55,613
off to the distance.
509
00:26:55,681 --> 00:26:58,315
¶ ¶
510
00:26:58,384 --> 00:27:01,485
NARRATOR:
Ripples like this
are made by flowing water,
511
00:27:01,554 --> 00:27:05,756
like the tide moving in and out
on a beach.
512
00:27:05,825 --> 00:27:07,024
The faster the flow of water,
513
00:27:07,093 --> 00:27:09,593
the larger
and more widely spaced
514
00:27:09,662 --> 00:27:11,562
the ripples become.
515
00:27:11,631 --> 00:27:13,597
Here, they're giant things
516
00:27:13,666 --> 00:27:16,600
that are spaced
hundreds of feet apart
517
00:27:16,669 --> 00:27:20,270
and they're tens of feet high.
518
00:27:20,339 --> 00:27:25,242
NARRATOR:
These ripples are so high,
the lake water that created them
519
00:27:25,311 --> 00:27:26,510
must have poured
through this valley
520
00:27:26,579 --> 00:27:29,813
at speeds of up to 80 miles
an hour.
521
00:27:29,882 --> 00:27:32,449
¶ ¶
522
00:27:32,518 --> 00:27:35,352
(water rushing)
523
00:27:35,421 --> 00:27:37,221
It's evidence that Lake Missoula
524
00:27:37,289 --> 00:27:40,758
was unleashed rapidly
in a massive flood.
525
00:27:40,826 --> 00:27:42,893
¶ ¶
526
00:27:42,962 --> 00:27:47,998
But that means the 23-mile-wide
ice dam holding it in place
527
00:27:48,067 --> 00:27:51,168
must have suddenly given way.
528
00:27:51,237 --> 00:27:54,104
(ice crumbling)
529
00:27:54,173 --> 00:27:56,473
How could an ice dam
of this scale
530
00:27:56,542 --> 00:28:01,111
fail so catastrophically?
531
00:28:01,180 --> 00:28:06,150
¶ ¶
532
00:28:06,218 --> 00:28:09,053
The exposure dates of the rocks
in the Scablands
533
00:28:09,121 --> 00:28:12,222
reveal the flood occurred well
before the end of the Ice Age.
534
00:28:12,291 --> 00:28:17,127
This rules out gradual melting
from a warming climate.
535
00:28:17,196 --> 00:28:18,862
¶ ¶
536
00:28:18,931 --> 00:28:22,099
Could looking at modern
dam failures hold a clue?
537
00:28:22,168 --> 00:28:24,601
¶ ¶
538
00:28:24,670 --> 00:28:27,838
MAN (over radio):
You people down the stream
better get out.
539
00:28:27,907 --> 00:28:29,840
NARRATOR:
In 1976,
540
00:28:29,909 --> 00:28:33,677
the newly constructed
300-foot-high Teton Dam,
541
00:28:33,746 --> 00:28:35,279
in Idaho,
542
00:28:35,347 --> 00:28:36,714
failed,
543
00:28:36,782 --> 00:28:39,983
unleashing almost
80 billion gallons of water.
544
00:28:40,052 --> 00:28:43,887
¶ ¶
545
00:28:43,956 --> 00:28:46,090
Investigators discovered
546
00:28:46,158 --> 00:28:48,525
that water had seeped
under the earth-filled dam,
547
00:28:48,594 --> 00:28:52,029
eroding it from below.
548
00:28:52,098 --> 00:28:55,432
Larry Smith believes water
seeping under the ice dam
549
00:28:55,501 --> 00:28:58,769
also caused the catastrophic
release of Lake Missoula.
550
00:28:58,838 --> 00:29:01,605
¶ ¶
551
00:29:01,674 --> 00:29:06,477
SMITH:
At the bottom
of this 2,000-foot-deep lake,
552
00:29:06,545 --> 00:29:09,079
the water pressures are immense,
553
00:29:09,148 --> 00:29:14,618
and any small cracks in the ice
will get penetrated
554
00:29:14,687 --> 00:29:16,286
by that high-pressure water.
555
00:29:16,355 --> 00:29:20,958
In doing so, that'll expand
that crack network
556
00:29:21,026 --> 00:29:24,595
to form tunnels under the ice.
557
00:29:24,663 --> 00:29:28,499
(water flowing)
558
00:29:28,567 --> 00:29:30,934
NARRATOR:
Lake water began draining
through these tunnels
559
00:29:31,003 --> 00:29:34,271
at a faster and faster rate...
560
00:29:34,340 --> 00:29:36,540
(water rushing)
561
00:29:36,609 --> 00:29:41,979
...until the whole ice dam
suddenly collapsed.
562
00:29:42,047 --> 00:29:47,017
(cracking loudly)
563
00:29:47,086 --> 00:29:52,856
(water rushing)
564
00:29:52,925 --> 00:29:56,727
SMITH:
It falls within minutes
to hours,
565
00:29:56,796 --> 00:29:59,129
with a cascade of water
coming through the area.
566
00:29:59,198 --> 00:30:03,600
(wind howling)
567
00:30:03,669 --> 00:30:05,903
NARRATOR:
All signs point to Lake Missoula
568
00:30:05,971 --> 00:30:09,139
being the source
of a catastrophic flood.
569
00:30:09,208 --> 00:30:10,974
¶ ¶
570
00:30:11,043 --> 00:30:13,911
Still, how likely is it
that floodwater could travel
571
00:30:13,979 --> 00:30:17,314
hundreds of miles southwest
to the Scablands
572
00:30:17,383 --> 00:30:19,750
with enough power to carve out
solid rock
573
00:30:19,819 --> 00:30:23,053
and transform
the entire landscape?
574
00:30:23,122 --> 00:30:27,391
¶ ¶
575
00:30:27,459 --> 00:30:33,764
¶ ¶
576
00:30:33,833 --> 00:30:38,902
Roger Denlinger studies
fluid dynamics.
577
00:30:38,971 --> 00:30:43,173
He's taken the volume
of ancient Lake Missoula
578
00:30:43,242 --> 00:30:45,742
and 3D maps of the Scablands
579
00:30:45,811 --> 00:30:49,179
to build a computer model
580
00:30:49,248 --> 00:30:51,215
that will predict
where the ancient flood
581
00:30:51,283 --> 00:30:54,651
would have traveled.
582
00:30:54,720 --> 00:30:58,856
Effectively, you're just pouring
water over the landscape.
583
00:30:58,924 --> 00:31:01,692
This is simply water flowing
over the Earth's surface,
584
00:31:01,760 --> 00:31:04,428
and it's going to always head
in the direction
585
00:31:04,496 --> 00:31:05,662
that it sees as downhill.
586
00:31:05,731 --> 00:31:07,764
¶ ¶
587
00:31:07,833 --> 00:31:10,167
NARRATOR:
Roger's model
will also determine
588
00:31:10,236 --> 00:31:13,904
the depth of the water.
589
00:31:13,973 --> 00:31:16,974
And this color bar shows
the flood's erosive power.
590
00:31:17,042 --> 00:31:19,343
¶ ¶
591
00:31:19,411 --> 00:31:22,179
If flow lines in the model
turn red,
592
00:31:22,248 --> 00:31:25,215
Roger knows the water
was flowing with enough force
593
00:31:25,284 --> 00:31:26,750
to carve solid rock.
594
00:31:26,819 --> 00:31:29,686
At this point,
we're going to break the dam.
595
00:31:29,755 --> 00:31:34,558
¶ ¶
596
00:31:36,762 --> 00:31:37,828
(ice cracks sharply)
597
00:31:37,897 --> 00:31:43,066
(water rushing)
598
00:31:43,135 --> 00:31:45,502
NARRATOR:
The moment it's released
from the ice dam,
599
00:31:45,571 --> 00:31:47,905
the lake water rushes
southwest,
600
00:31:47,973 --> 00:31:49,539
toward what we know today
601
00:31:49,608 --> 00:31:52,476
as the eroded landscape
of the Scablands.
602
00:31:52,544 --> 00:31:55,379
¶ ¶
603
00:31:55,447 --> 00:31:57,247
And not only that,
604
00:31:57,316 --> 00:32:00,317
the places that the model
has highlighted in red,
605
00:32:00,386 --> 00:32:02,753
where the power of the flood
is greatest,
606
00:32:02,821 --> 00:32:05,656
exactly match the location
607
00:32:05,724 --> 00:32:09,159
of the most dramatically
transformed landscapes today:
608
00:32:09,228 --> 00:32:11,561
¶ ¶
609
00:32:11,630 --> 00:32:13,597
the Dry Falls;
610
00:32:13,666 --> 00:32:16,166
¶ ¶
611
00:32:16,235 --> 00:32:18,936
the rock islands,
612
00:32:19,004 --> 00:32:21,738
¶ ¶
613
00:32:21,807 --> 00:32:24,408
and the sheer gorges.
614
00:32:24,476 --> 00:32:30,213
¶ ¶
615
00:32:30,282 --> 00:32:33,884
We get damage to the surface
in exactly the areas
616
00:32:33,953 --> 00:32:35,319
that we see today.
617
00:32:35,387 --> 00:32:37,187
¶ ¶
618
00:32:37,256 --> 00:32:40,357
NARRATOR:
Roger's model
supports the theory
619
00:32:40,426 --> 00:32:43,093
that a giant flood
from Lake Missoula
620
00:32:43,162 --> 00:32:45,662
carved this landscape,
621
00:32:45,731 --> 00:32:51,268
and reveals that the waters
reached unimaginable heights.
622
00:32:51,337 --> 00:32:54,004
This water came up 800 feet--
that's huge.
623
00:32:54,073 --> 00:32:56,106
(water crashing)
624
00:32:56,175 --> 00:33:00,110
BAKER:
Most people think of floods
by watching the TV
625
00:33:00,179 --> 00:33:02,045
and they see the water rising
in a river,
626
00:33:02,114 --> 00:33:04,281
and they see a house
going underwater,
627
00:33:04,350 --> 00:33:07,551
maybe there's a person
on top of the house.
628
00:33:07,619 --> 00:33:11,655
Think of water hundreds of feet
above the house,
629
00:33:11,724 --> 00:33:16,460
that's the difference
in the scale of this flooding.
630
00:33:16,528 --> 00:33:18,996
NARRATOR:
Bringing all the evidence
together,
631
00:33:19,064 --> 00:33:23,200
scientists can now unpack
the catastrophic flood
632
00:33:23,268 --> 00:33:24,534
blow by blow.
633
00:33:24,603 --> 00:33:28,572
Around 16,000 years ago,
634
00:33:28,640 --> 00:33:32,609
the vast ice dam holding back
Lake Missoula failed,
635
00:33:32,678 --> 00:33:36,980
suddenly unleashing
500 cubic miles of water.
636
00:33:37,049 --> 00:33:39,916
(cracking loudly)
637
00:33:39,985 --> 00:33:42,919
(water rushing)
638
00:33:42,988 --> 00:33:45,122
SMITH:
It was equivalent in volume
639
00:33:45,190 --> 00:33:49,393
to ten times all the rivers
of the world's natural flow.
640
00:33:49,461 --> 00:33:55,065
NARRATOR:
The raging torrent
tears across Washington state,
641
00:33:55,134 --> 00:33:56,800
ripping out billions
of tons of rock
642
00:33:56,869 --> 00:34:00,370
from the once-flat landscape.
643
00:34:00,439 --> 00:34:03,140
BAKER:
There would be blocks of ice,
644
00:34:03,208 --> 00:34:05,275
there would be boulders,
there'd be roiling water,
645
00:34:05,344 --> 00:34:08,545
the sound would be overwhelming.
646
00:34:08,614 --> 00:34:11,181
NARRATOR:
In a matter of hours,
647
00:34:11,250 --> 00:34:13,216
the flood reaches
the Pacific Ocean,
648
00:34:13,285 --> 00:34:18,755
carrying with it 1,200
cubic miles of rock and earth,
649
00:34:18,824 --> 00:34:21,691
violently torn
from the Scablands.
650
00:34:21,760 --> 00:34:25,562
¶ ¶
651
00:34:25,631 --> 00:34:28,598
SMITH:
To do all this landscape change
652
00:34:28,667 --> 00:34:30,333
within a few days to a few weeks
653
00:34:30,402 --> 00:34:31,835
is just mind-expanding.
654
00:34:31,904 --> 00:34:36,440
¶ ¶
655
00:34:36,508 --> 00:34:39,843
BAKER:
Even Hollywood disaster movies
do not compare
656
00:34:39,912 --> 00:34:41,044
to what would have happened
657
00:34:41,113 --> 00:34:43,647
as this flood came across
the landscape.
658
00:34:43,715 --> 00:34:48,518
(water rushing)
659
00:34:48,587 --> 00:34:50,153
¶ ¶
660
00:34:50,222 --> 00:34:54,624
NARRATOR:
This dramatic event entirely
reshaped the landscape.
661
00:34:54,693 --> 00:34:57,961
But there is one final twist
in the tale.
662
00:34:58,030 --> 00:34:59,196
¶ ¶
663
00:34:59,264 --> 00:35:02,265
Further research,
based on core samples
664
00:35:02,334 --> 00:35:05,102
drilled out from the floor
of the Pacific Ocean,
665
00:35:05,170 --> 00:35:08,972
suggests that the Scablands
are a product not of one,
666
00:35:09,041 --> 00:35:12,509
but of many floods.
667
00:35:12,578 --> 00:35:15,645
The evidence reveals
that during the Ice Age,
668
00:35:15,714 --> 00:35:18,381
beginning around
20,000 years ago,
669
00:35:18,450 --> 00:35:22,552
repeated floods
tore across the landscape...
670
00:35:22,621 --> 00:35:24,621
¶ ¶
671
00:35:24,690 --> 00:35:30,093
...as the giant ice dam
repeatedly broke,
672
00:35:30,162 --> 00:35:35,232
reformed, and then broke again.
673
00:35:35,300 --> 00:35:36,466
¶ ¶
674
00:35:36,535 --> 00:35:38,602
BAKER:
The circumstances that created
675
00:35:38,670 --> 00:35:40,370
this immense volume of water
676
00:35:40,439 --> 00:35:42,806
produced multiple floods.
677
00:35:42,875 --> 00:35:46,276
(water rushing)
678
00:35:46,345 --> 00:35:49,946
¶ ¶
679
00:35:50,015 --> 00:35:52,115
NARRATOR:
Decades of geological
detective work
680
00:35:52,184 --> 00:35:55,652
show that the scarred
and eroded landscapes
681
00:35:55,721 --> 00:36:00,056
of Washington state,
as well as Iceland,
682
00:36:00,125 --> 00:36:04,094
both bear the fingerprints
of mega-floods.
683
00:36:04,163 --> 00:36:09,332
And now, this discovery
is helping scientists unravel
684
00:36:09,401 --> 00:36:13,003
a mystery in another part
of the world.
685
00:36:13,071 --> 00:36:16,640
¶ ¶
686
00:36:16,708 --> 00:36:20,210
Thousands of miles away
is the channel that separates
687
00:36:20,279 --> 00:36:23,180
what is now England from France.
688
00:36:23,248 --> 00:36:25,248
¶ ¶
689
00:36:25,317 --> 00:36:27,984
Today, it links the North Sea
in the east
690
00:36:28,053 --> 00:36:31,021
to the Atlantic Ocean
in the west.
691
00:36:31,089 --> 00:36:33,089
Called the English Channel,
692
00:36:33,158 --> 00:36:36,793
it's the busiest shipping lane
in the world.
693
00:36:36,862 --> 00:36:41,298
¶ ¶
694
00:36:41,366 --> 00:36:44,901
And towering more than
350 feet above it,
695
00:36:44,970 --> 00:36:46,703
on the south coast of England,
696
00:36:46,772 --> 00:36:50,340
are the White Cliffs of Dover.
697
00:36:50,409 --> 00:36:51,875
¶ ¶
698
00:36:51,944 --> 00:36:53,710
Geologists, like James Lawrence,
699
00:36:53,779 --> 00:36:57,647
now think
these iconic chalk cliffs
700
00:36:57,716 --> 00:37:00,116
hold an extraordinary secret,
701
00:37:00,185 --> 00:37:03,853
and he's going over the edge
to hunt for the evidence.
702
00:37:03,922 --> 00:37:06,623
¶ ¶
703
00:37:06,692 --> 00:37:10,527
Because these cliffs
look almost identical to cliffs
704
00:37:10,596 --> 00:37:12,596
on the other side
of the channel,
705
00:37:12,664 --> 00:37:15,732
on the northern coast of France.
706
00:37:15,801 --> 00:37:17,033
(seagulls squawking)
707
00:37:17,102 --> 00:37:19,302
LAWRENCE:
People don't realize
708
00:37:19,371 --> 00:37:21,204
that if I was to go over
to France,
709
00:37:21,273 --> 00:37:25,508
we could find similar
chalk cliffs.
710
00:37:25,577 --> 00:37:29,546
NARRATOR:
This chalk formed
100 million years ago,
711
00:37:29,615 --> 00:37:33,316
when this whole area
was covered by a tropical sea.
712
00:37:33,385 --> 00:37:35,552
(waves lapping)
713
00:37:35,621 --> 00:37:39,022
The ancient sea teemed
with microscopic organisms.
714
00:37:39,091 --> 00:37:42,325
When they died,
their calcium-rich skeletons
715
00:37:42,394 --> 00:37:44,394
fell to the sea bed.
716
00:37:44,463 --> 00:37:48,198
Over time,
these built up in thick layers
717
00:37:48,267 --> 00:37:50,634
and were compressed into chalk,
718
00:37:50,702 --> 00:37:52,235
a kind of limestone.
719
00:37:52,304 --> 00:37:56,673
LAWRENCE:
We are getting
exactly the same rocks
720
00:37:56,742 --> 00:37:59,709
which have been deposited
in exactly the same environment
721
00:37:59,778 --> 00:38:01,778
on this side of the channel,
722
00:38:01,847 --> 00:38:04,648
and on the French side
of the channel.
723
00:38:04,716 --> 00:38:09,185
(waves lapping)
724
00:38:09,254 --> 00:38:11,388
NARRATOR:
And James is discovering
725
00:38:11,456 --> 00:38:14,424
that the connection between
the cliffs in France and England
726
00:38:14,493 --> 00:38:17,294
goes beyond the chalk itself.
727
00:38:17,362 --> 00:38:23,266
¶ ¶
728
00:38:24,636 --> 00:38:28,505
Embedded in the white chalk
are a series of horizontal bands
729
00:38:28,573 --> 00:38:32,575
of a dark rock called flint.
730
00:38:32,644 --> 00:38:37,881
Here I have a fantastic band
of flint.
731
00:38:37,949 --> 00:38:39,783
¶ ¶
732
00:38:39,851 --> 00:38:42,519
NARRATOR:
Flint, a form of the
mineral quartz,
733
00:38:42,587 --> 00:38:46,022
is formed by changes
in ocean chemistry.
734
00:38:46,091 --> 00:38:50,860
¶ ¶
735
00:38:50,929 --> 00:38:53,830
But these changes occur
only occasionally,
736
00:38:53,899 --> 00:38:57,400
resulting in these
distinctive dark bands.
737
00:38:57,469 --> 00:38:59,836
¶ ¶
738
00:38:59,905 --> 00:39:01,071
LAWRENCE:
These flint bands
739
00:39:01,139 --> 00:39:03,606
are continuous
throughout the chalk.
740
00:39:03,675 --> 00:39:06,343
¶ ¶
741
00:39:06,411 --> 00:39:10,146
NARRATOR
This band of flint
runs through the entire cliff,
742
00:39:10,215 --> 00:39:14,884
and there are dozens
running horizontally...
743
00:39:14,953 --> 00:39:18,254
¶ ¶
744
00:39:18,323 --> 00:39:22,092
...each one at a different level
in the chalk.
745
00:39:22,160 --> 00:39:27,163
Taken together, these parallel
bands of dark flint
746
00:39:27,232 --> 00:39:30,700
form a unique geological
fingerprint in the white cliff.
747
00:39:30,769 --> 00:39:33,703
¶ ¶
748
00:39:33,772 --> 00:39:37,974
What's extraordinary is that
the same geological fingerprint
749
00:39:38,043 --> 00:39:41,111
is visible on the other side
of the channel.
750
00:39:41,179 --> 00:39:44,381
(seagulls squawking)
751
00:39:44,449 --> 00:39:47,384
So the chalk and the flint
in these cliffs forms a bar code
752
00:39:47,452 --> 00:39:51,221
and is exactly the same
as the chalk and the flint
753
00:39:51,289 --> 00:39:53,123
in the cliffs in France.
754
00:39:53,191 --> 00:39:59,329
NARRATOR:
The spacing and levels of the
flint layers perfectly align.
755
00:39:59,398 --> 00:40:02,132
¶ ¶
756
00:40:02,200 --> 00:40:07,137
To James Lawrence, this raises
an extraordinary possibility.
757
00:40:07,205 --> 00:40:10,640
So what we know from this
evidence is that a chalk ridge
758
00:40:10,709 --> 00:40:13,977
once connected England
and France.
759
00:40:14,045 --> 00:40:17,180
NARRATOR:
These flint layers tell us
760
00:40:17,249 --> 00:40:19,449
that hundreds of thousands
of years ago,
761
00:40:19,518 --> 00:40:22,051
a ridge of chalk
almost seven miles wide
762
00:40:22,120 --> 00:40:26,156
once extended 21 miles
across the channel,
763
00:40:26,224 --> 00:40:31,094
joining what is now Britain
to the European continent.
764
00:40:31,163 --> 00:40:33,196
¶ ¶
765
00:40:33,265 --> 00:40:34,531
LAWRENCE:
So it's quite incredible
766
00:40:34,599 --> 00:40:36,299
to think that there
would have been a land mass
767
00:40:36,368 --> 00:40:38,334
stretching across the sea.
768
00:40:38,403 --> 00:40:42,972
(seagulls calling, wind blowing)
769
00:40:43,041 --> 00:40:47,877
NARRATOR:
But this discovery
raises a brand-new mystery.
770
00:40:47,946 --> 00:40:49,612
(chalk pieces falling)
771
00:40:49,681 --> 00:40:51,614
Somehow, the cliffs
between England and France
772
00:40:51,683 --> 00:40:54,083
have been separated over time.
773
00:40:54,152 --> 00:40:55,952
¶ ¶
774
00:40:56,021 --> 00:40:58,588
NARRATOR:
If Britain and France
were once joined,
775
00:40:58,657 --> 00:41:03,793
what force separated them and
turned Britain into an island?
776
00:41:03,862 --> 00:41:08,097
¶ ¶
777
00:41:08,166 --> 00:41:10,366
Control, Maverick.
778
00:41:10,435 --> 00:41:11,701
¶ ¶
779
00:41:11,770 --> 00:41:14,003
NARRATOR:
While exploring the sea bed
780
00:41:14,072 --> 00:41:15,638
of the English Channel,
781
00:41:15,707 --> 00:41:18,608
geologist Jenny Collier
finds a telling clue.
782
00:41:18,677 --> 00:41:23,112
¶ ¶
783
00:41:23,181 --> 00:41:24,881
Four, five, six--
ten meters
784
00:41:24,950 --> 00:41:27,116
in a split second.
785
00:41:28,553 --> 00:41:31,254
We've got a really steep
drop-off in the topography
786
00:41:31,323 --> 00:41:34,624
and it's the edge
of a really unusual landform.
787
00:41:34,693 --> 00:41:39,162
NARRATOR:
Using sonar to measure
the depth of the channel,
788
00:41:39,231 --> 00:41:43,199
Jenny is surprised to find what
appears to be a steep canyon
789
00:41:43,268 --> 00:41:46,803
carved into solid bedrock.
790
00:41:46,872 --> 00:41:48,938
¶ ¶
791
00:41:49,007 --> 00:41:53,576
Sonar works by firing
sound waves at the sea bed.
792
00:41:53,645 --> 00:41:56,246
The deeper the water,
the longer it takes the sound
793
00:41:56,314 --> 00:41:57,514
to make the round trip.
794
00:41:57,582 --> 00:41:59,816
¶ ¶
795
00:41:59,885 --> 00:42:02,585
Jenny expected the channel floor
to be flat,
796
00:42:02,654 --> 00:42:08,057
but the sonar has revealed
something far more dramatic.
797
00:42:08,126 --> 00:42:11,461
COLLIER:
We've discovered
798
00:42:11,530 --> 00:42:13,463
just an extraordinary
geological event,
799
00:42:13,532 --> 00:42:14,998
right in the middle
of the straits.
800
00:42:15,066 --> 00:42:16,733
¶ ¶
801
00:42:16,801 --> 00:42:20,570
NARRATOR:
To learn more about
this major geological find,
802
00:42:20,639 --> 00:42:24,007
she and her colleagues
took on a massive task.
803
00:42:24,075 --> 00:42:27,010
¶ ¶
804
00:42:27,078 --> 00:42:30,513
Using a more advanced
sonar system,
805
00:42:30,582 --> 00:42:32,782
they are mapping
53 square miles of the channel,
806
00:42:32,851 --> 00:42:35,985
to an accuracy of four inches.
807
00:42:36,054 --> 00:42:38,721
(sonar beeping)
808
00:42:38,790 --> 00:42:41,491
What this reveals
is a strange picture
809
00:42:41,560 --> 00:42:44,961
of channels, rock islands,
and valleys,
810
00:42:45,030 --> 00:42:50,333
carved nearly 300 feet down,
into the rock of the sea bed.
811
00:42:50,402 --> 00:42:54,370
¶ ¶
812
00:42:54,439 --> 00:42:56,172
I mean, we haven't got anything
like this in Europe.
813
00:42:56,241 --> 00:43:01,110
There's really only one place
that has all of these features.
814
00:43:01,179 --> 00:43:02,879
¶ ¶
815
00:43:02,948 --> 00:43:06,115
NARRATOR:
Without the water, the landscape
beneath the English Channel
816
00:43:06,184 --> 00:43:10,486
appears to have steep valleys
and islands carved into it.
817
00:43:10,555 --> 00:43:14,757
It looks eerily similar
to the channeled Scablands
818
00:43:14,826 --> 00:43:18,394
of Washington state.
819
00:43:18,463 --> 00:43:20,396
But was this underwater
landscape
820
00:43:20,465 --> 00:43:25,501
also created by a mega-flood?
821
00:43:25,570 --> 00:43:28,204
COLLIER:
The only way you can dig out
islands into solid bedrock
822
00:43:28,273 --> 00:43:31,007
is to have extreme water flows,
823
00:43:31,076 --> 00:43:32,909
and that basically pointed us
towards,
824
00:43:32,978 --> 00:43:36,045
this was yet another
catastrophic flood terrain.
825
00:43:36,114 --> 00:43:37,914
(water rushing)
826
00:43:37,983 --> 00:43:42,418
NARRATOR:
What the Scablands revealed is
that carving solid rock
827
00:43:42,487 --> 00:43:48,091
requires a huge reservoir
of water to be trapped,
828
00:43:48,159 --> 00:43:52,729
then released in a single
cataclysmic event.
829
00:43:52,797 --> 00:43:56,466
¶ ¶
830
00:43:56,534 --> 00:44:01,971
But today, the English Channel
flows between two open seas.
831
00:44:02,040 --> 00:44:06,075
So how could a large enough
volume of water
832
00:44:06,144 --> 00:44:08,277
have built up
to cause a mega-flood?
833
00:44:08,346 --> 00:44:13,249
¶ ¶
834
00:44:13,318 --> 00:44:17,286
Geologist Phil Gibbard
believes he has an answer.
835
00:44:17,355 --> 00:44:23,993
And the evidence lies 120 miles
north of the English Channel,
836
00:44:24,062 --> 00:44:26,329
on the coast of the North Sea,
837
00:44:26,398 --> 00:44:32,101
at the bottom of these cliffs.
838
00:44:32,170 --> 00:44:33,836
GIBBARD:
What we've got here
839
00:44:33,905 --> 00:44:35,238
is a glacial deposit
840
00:44:35,306 --> 00:44:39,475
which is from about
450,000 years ago.
841
00:44:39,544 --> 00:44:41,477
¶ ¶
842
00:44:41,546 --> 00:44:44,313
NARRATOR:
Deep, fine-grained deposits
like this
843
00:44:44,382 --> 00:44:46,516
were laid down
across Northern Europe
844
00:44:46,584 --> 00:44:51,621
as giant ice sheets
ground over rocks.
845
00:44:51,690 --> 00:44:57,694
450,000 years ago, England
was in the grip of an ice age.
846
00:44:57,762 --> 00:44:59,362
(ice grinding)
847
00:44:59,431 --> 00:45:03,866
Ice sheets, hundreds of miles
across and a mile high,
848
00:45:03,935 --> 00:45:06,736
reached down from Scandinavia.
849
00:45:06,805 --> 00:45:10,373
They would have dammed the
northern edge of the North Sea.
850
00:45:10,442 --> 00:45:13,076
To the south,
the intact ridge of chalk
851
00:45:13,144 --> 00:45:15,378
between what is now
France and England
852
00:45:15,447 --> 00:45:17,647
formed a natural dam.
853
00:45:17,716 --> 00:45:20,750
Phil believes that meltwater
854
00:45:20,819 --> 00:45:24,787
from the ice sheets and rivers
pouring into the North Sea
855
00:45:24,856 --> 00:45:26,689
had nowhere to go.
856
00:45:26,758 --> 00:45:30,793
A vast amount of water built up
behind the chalk ridge.
857
00:45:30,862 --> 00:45:34,797
He sees the evidence
for this ice age reservoir
858
00:45:34,866 --> 00:45:36,365
in the sea cliffs,
859
00:45:36,434 --> 00:45:40,403
as thin horizontal layers
of silt.
860
00:45:40,472 --> 00:45:42,739
GIBBARD:
The sediments are horizontal,
as you see.
861
00:45:42,807 --> 00:45:45,408
That horizontality
can only be produced
862
00:45:45,477 --> 00:45:48,611
in a lake situation,
a standing-water situation.
863
00:45:48,680 --> 00:45:53,816
NARRATOR:
And not in a turbulent area,
like an ocean.
864
00:45:53,885 --> 00:45:56,185
Phil has discovered
similar-looking formations
865
00:45:56,254 --> 00:45:58,554
in other places
around the North Sea,
866
00:45:58,623 --> 00:46:02,792
some a hundred feet
above sea level today.
867
00:46:02,861 --> 00:46:05,394
¶ ¶
868
00:46:05,463 --> 00:46:07,630
GIBBARD:
So this was a massive lake
on the scale
869
00:46:07,699 --> 00:46:10,366
of the Great Lakes
in North America,
870
00:46:10,435 --> 00:46:13,636
and this lake provides
the only possible source
871
00:46:13,705 --> 00:46:17,340
for the mega-flood
that formed the Dover Straits.
872
00:46:17,408 --> 00:46:21,010
NARRATOR:
Could this enormous reservoir,
873
00:46:21,079 --> 00:46:22,545
a glacial lake,
874
00:46:22,614 --> 00:46:25,348
have suddenly drained
to form the dramatic features
875
00:46:25,416 --> 00:46:27,817
on the bed
of the English Channel?
876
00:46:27,886 --> 00:46:30,453
And if so, how?
877
00:46:30,522 --> 00:46:33,489
¶ ¶
878
00:46:33,558 --> 00:46:36,058
COLLIER:
In order to carve
these features,
879
00:46:36,127 --> 00:46:38,261
this rock ridge must have failed
very, very rapidly.
880
00:46:38,329 --> 00:46:40,229
¶ ¶
881
00:46:40,298 --> 00:46:42,198
NARRATOR:
But what could have caused this?
882
00:46:42,267 --> 00:46:46,669
¶ ¶
883
00:46:46,738 --> 00:46:48,905
How could the giant ridge
of solid rock
884
00:46:48,973 --> 00:46:51,107
between France and Britain
885
00:46:51,176 --> 00:46:55,745
have given way
so catastrophically?
886
00:46:55,814 --> 00:46:58,314
(waves lapping)
887
00:46:58,383 --> 00:47:02,418
A clue lies in the way chalk
reacts to water.
888
00:47:02,487 --> 00:47:06,389
¶ ¶
889
00:47:06,457 --> 00:47:09,792
LAWRENCE:
Having a glacial lake
in contact with a chalk ridge
890
00:47:09,861 --> 00:47:13,462
would have saturated the chalk,
making it much weaker
891
00:47:13,531 --> 00:47:15,865
and much more likely to fail.
892
00:47:15,934 --> 00:47:20,169
NARRATOR:
When water soaks into chalk
and saturates it,
893
00:47:20,238 --> 00:47:24,540
the chalk can lose
half its strength,
894
00:47:24,609 --> 00:47:30,313
making it far more likely
to fail.
895
00:47:30,381 --> 00:47:32,114
One of the problems
with the chalk being so weak
896
00:47:32,183 --> 00:47:34,584
is that it will often lead
to cliff collapses,
897
00:47:34,652 --> 00:47:36,853
like the one we can see
behind us.
898
00:47:36,921 --> 00:47:39,956
¶ ¶
899
00:47:40,024 --> 00:47:44,227
NARRATOR:
Every year, thousands of tons
of rain and wave-soaked chalk
900
00:47:44,295 --> 00:47:47,496
collapse into the channel,
901
00:47:47,565 --> 00:47:52,301
dramatically eroding
the coastline.
902
00:47:52,370 --> 00:47:57,707
¶ ¶
903
00:47:57,775 --> 00:48:01,177
Many geologists now believe
that during a previous ice age
904
00:48:01,246 --> 00:48:03,646
almost a half million years ago,
905
00:48:03,715 --> 00:48:05,481
water from the North Sea
reservoir
906
00:48:05,550 --> 00:48:09,652
soaked the chalk ridge,
fatally weakening it.
907
00:48:09,721 --> 00:48:12,355
¶ ¶
908
00:48:12,423 --> 00:48:14,757
Once the lake was deep enough,
909
00:48:14,826 --> 00:48:20,796
water began pouring over the top
of the ridge in a waterfall,
910
00:48:20,865 --> 00:48:24,767
rapidly eroding
the waterlogged chalk.
911
00:48:24,836 --> 00:48:27,536
(water rushing)
912
00:48:27,605 --> 00:48:30,473
We'd have had initially
a small stream of water
913
00:48:30,541 --> 00:48:33,309
coming over
the top of the rock ridge,
914
00:48:33,378 --> 00:48:34,944
that would have
catastrophically crumbled,
915
00:48:35,013 --> 00:48:37,680
with large amounts of rock
being removed
916
00:48:37,749 --> 00:48:41,250
and more and more water
flooding through,
917
00:48:41,319 --> 00:48:43,586
just running away with itself.
918
00:48:43,655 --> 00:48:46,856
NARRATOR:
From the shape of the features
on the sonar,
919
00:48:46,925 --> 00:48:51,427
Jenny estimates that
the floodwaters raced through
920
00:48:51,496 --> 00:48:57,099
at a rate of about
264 million gallons a second.
921
00:48:57,168 --> 00:49:00,269
¶ ¶
922
00:49:00,338 --> 00:49:05,374
That's almost 60 times the flow
rate of the Mississippi River.
923
00:49:05,443 --> 00:49:10,046
(water rushing)
924
00:49:10,114 --> 00:49:12,248
You would have seen
a tidal wave overtopping
925
00:49:12,317 --> 00:49:15,618
and washing a giant gorge
into that landscape.
926
00:49:15,687 --> 00:49:19,088
NARRATOR:
The deluge crashed on,
927
00:49:19,157 --> 00:49:20,990
breaking through the chalk ridge
928
00:49:21,059 --> 00:49:23,359
linking today's
Britain and France,
929
00:49:23,428 --> 00:49:27,530
before finally reaching
the Atlantic Ocean.
930
00:49:27,598 --> 00:49:32,134
It was this cataclysmic flow
that created the English Channel
931
00:49:32,203 --> 00:49:34,737
and began the process of erosion
932
00:49:34,806 --> 00:49:37,974
that led to what's now Britain
933
00:49:38,042 --> 00:49:41,911
becoming an island
for the first time.
934
00:49:41,980 --> 00:49:45,715
¶ ¶
935
00:49:45,783 --> 00:49:47,783
The clues in Iceland,
936
00:49:47,852 --> 00:49:51,387
the English Channel,
937
00:49:51,456 --> 00:49:56,659
and the Channeled Scablands
of Washington state
938
00:49:56,728 --> 00:49:58,928
reveal that floods bigger
and more devastating
939
00:49:58,997 --> 00:50:02,098
than anything we see today
940
00:50:02,166 --> 00:50:07,336
have torn across and
helped shape Earth's surface.
941
00:50:07,405 --> 00:50:12,141
BAKER:
These giant mega-floods
totally shaped a landscape
942
00:50:12,210 --> 00:50:14,143
in a matter of days or weeks.
943
00:50:14,212 --> 00:50:15,878
¶ ¶
944
00:50:15,947 --> 00:50:17,480
NARRATOR:
But the question is:
945
00:50:17,548 --> 00:50:22,151
could a flood on this scale
happen again?
946
00:50:22,220 --> 00:50:25,054
(ice cracking softly)
947
00:50:25,123 --> 00:50:27,790
The one thing all these
mega-floods have in common
948
00:50:27,859 --> 00:50:31,460
is that they involve
huge volumes of ice melting
949
00:50:31,529 --> 00:50:33,095
and being released
950
00:50:33,164 --> 00:50:35,765
in one sudden burst.
951
00:50:35,833 --> 00:50:39,535
(crashing loudly)
952
00:50:39,604 --> 00:50:44,306
In Iceland,
a volcano beneath the ice sheet
953
00:50:44,375 --> 00:50:48,044
could trigger a mega-flood
at any moment.
954
00:50:48,112 --> 00:50:51,113
(volcano erupting)
955
00:50:51,182 --> 00:50:53,049
¶ ¶
956
00:50:53,117 --> 00:50:55,518
Fortunately, very few people
957
00:50:55,586 --> 00:50:58,254
live in the Icelandic
flood zone,
958
00:50:58,322 --> 00:51:02,758
and the huge volume of ice
needed to create glacial lakes,
959
00:51:02,827 --> 00:51:05,161
on the scale of the ones
that carved the English Channel
960
00:51:05,229 --> 00:51:06,195
and the Scablands,
961
00:51:06,264 --> 00:51:12,101
can only build up
during ice ages.
962
00:51:12,170 --> 00:51:15,004
(whirring)
963
00:51:15,073 --> 00:51:17,540
¶ ¶
964
00:51:17,608 --> 00:51:19,809
But there is one region
on Earth today
965
00:51:19,877 --> 00:51:23,045
where stores of melting ice
966
00:51:23,114 --> 00:51:26,715
still pose a major flood risk
to millions:
967
00:51:26,784 --> 00:51:30,319
ice- and snow-covered mountains.
968
00:51:30,388 --> 00:51:32,721
¶ ¶
969
00:51:32,790 --> 00:51:34,323
SMITH:
Wherever you have glaciers,
970
00:51:34,392 --> 00:51:35,691
you have a lot of water.
971
00:51:35,760 --> 00:51:39,095
Wherever you have glaciers
in a mountain,
972
00:51:39,163 --> 00:51:44,033
you have the high likelihood of
making a glacially dammed lake,
973
00:51:44,102 --> 00:51:46,902
and those glacially dammed lakes
are unstable
974
00:51:46,971 --> 00:51:48,771
and could drain
catastrophically.
975
00:51:48,840 --> 00:51:51,040
¶ ¶
976
00:51:51,109 --> 00:51:53,142
BAKER:
We're not going to get, today,
977
00:51:53,211 --> 00:51:55,611
releases of water
like Lake Missoula,
978
00:51:55,680 --> 00:51:57,513
that was 2,000 feet deep.
979
00:51:57,582 --> 00:52:02,818
But we can get glacial lakes
that are a hundred feet deep,
980
00:52:02,887 --> 00:52:04,086
and these will produce
981
00:52:04,155 --> 00:52:07,123
really dangerous
and spectacular floods.
982
00:52:07,191 --> 00:52:09,525
¶ ¶
983
00:52:09,594 --> 00:52:14,730
NARRATOR:
Today, floods in populated areas
wreak untold devastation.
984
00:52:14,799 --> 00:52:18,567
Faced with Hurricane Harvey's
impact on Houston
985
00:52:18,636 --> 00:52:20,970
and the floods in Bangladesh,
986
00:52:21,038 --> 00:52:24,206
it may seem that floods
could not get any worse.
987
00:52:24,275 --> 00:52:28,477
But the vast floods of the past
carved huge features
988
00:52:28,546 --> 00:52:32,381
into the very bedrock
of continents.
989
00:52:32,450 --> 00:52:34,450
Those scars are a stark reminder
990
00:52:34,519 --> 00:52:38,888
of just how destructive
floods can be.
991
00:52:38,956 --> 00:52:43,993
¶ ¶
992
00:52:50,802 --> 00:52:53,303
This "NOVA" program
is available on DVD.
993
00:52:53,371 --> 00:52:58,841
To order, visit shopPBS.org
or call 1-800-PLAY-PBS.
994
00:52:58,910 --> 00:53:01,911
"NOVA" is also available
for download on iTunes.
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