Original subtitles

To Darius and Parysatis were born two sons, the older Artaxerxes and the younger Cyrus.

So begins the adventure book called the ‘Anabasis of Cyrus’ or the ‘Expedition

of Cyrus’ by Xenophon the Athenian. In this intrepid tale, a heterogeneous group of Greek

mercenaries travelled far to the east to help Cyrus take the Persian throne from Artaxerxes,

but instead found themselves isolated and far from home, forced to make a daring retreat through

hostile territory in the heart of Iran. We will explore the story of Ancient Hellas’ blockbuster

thriller, from the incursion into Persia, to the Battle of Cunaxa, to the retreat into Armenia,

and the epic fight in the service of the Thracian King. Welcome to our video on the Anabasis,

the story of Xenophon and the 10,000 and the perils they faced on their long journey home.

ATHENIAN SUN, SPARTAN MOON: BACKGROUND: Before we delve into the contents of the Anabasis

of Cyrus, we must first understand its author, as well as the king after whom the book is named.

Xenophon was an Athenian statesman and mercenary from the demos of Erchia. He was a student of

Sokrates amidst the turmoil of the Peloponnesian War and would later become a sympathizer of the

Spartan political system. Most notably, he was one of the Greek mercenaries who ended up stranded in

the heart of Persia, making his thrilling tale of derring-do, in essence, an autobiography. Xenophon

was clearly a deeply religious man, made apparent in his writing, which devotes page space to

examining the virtues and vices of the characters in the Anabasis. The text’s reason for being

written is unclear; some consider it to be a form of response to political enemies in Athens who saw

him as a Medizer, ergo culturally compromised Persia-lover, for going or an analysis of his

ideas and reflection of his actions during the campaign of the Ten Thousand to Persia and back.

Others point out how Xenophon uses events to discuss ethical themes based on events

in the campaign, such as piety or breaking oaths. Xenophon was initially unsure of whether to go to

Persia to fight and was possibly seen through hostile eyes by the other Athenians due to his

political beliefs, which were more oligarchic than Athens could tolerate after the Thirty Tyrants. He

thus asked his teacher, Sokrates, who sent him to the Pythia. The Oracle replied cryptically

as ever, and eventually, ignoring a cautious Sokrates’s advice, Xenophon set forth for the

land where Yazatas and Ahuras are said to reside. Cyrus, the younger son of the Persian Shahanshah,

was keen to take over the throne of Persia from his older brother Artaxerxes. Xenophon

speaks highly of the young Prince’s prestigious education, as well as his proficiency in the bow

and arrow. As satrap in Asia Minor, Cyrus had no backing by the noble families of the court,

and so had little help in making his case for the throne. Despite this, Cyrus had his own

pool of support to draw upon. His involvement in Greek affairs during the Peloponnesian War had

left him with Hellenic connections, whose hired soldiers he used to fight various local tribes,

along with his local nemesis, the satrap Tissaphernes. The mercenaries Cyrus used to fight

his battles for him came from all over Hellas; a heterogeneous group which became known as the

Myrioi, or the Ten Thousand. This group, which included many elite troops of various styles,

Xenophon amongst them, was to help him take the throne from Artaxerxes. In 401 BCE,

the Myrioi set off from Sardeis to deliver salvation unto their Persian benefactor,

much like the Persian Yazata of the Moon, Mah, was said to have saved the soul of the first

Bovine Gavaevodata. It must have seemed like a new Iliad for the Greek troops,

an adventure for glory and money in an eastern land, but little did they know they were to be

a part of the eternal fratricides of Persian monarchies so eloquently seen in the Shahnameh,

the Persian national epic written by Ferdowsi. ON THE MARCH: ROAD TO CUNAXA

The army that set off from Sardeis was composed not just of the Ten Thousand but

also 1,000 Paphlagonian cavalries, 700 Spartan hoplites, 2,500 Peltasts and Light Infantry,

60 chariots with scythes, as well as a contingent of Persian troops amassed by Cyrus. During the

first stretch of their springtime march, they encountered logistical issues in their supply

of food. This created tensions in the army, which bubbled over in Cilicia when one of the generals,

the Spartan Klearchos, faced rebellion amongst the troops. The soldiers also began to realize that

they were not being sent to a rebelling province but straight to the army of the Shahnashah (or

King of Kings of Persia), which made them even more anxious. One of the ringleaders of

this mutiny was flogged by Klearchos, but this only caused more distress. Only the promise of

more pay by Cyrus was enough to dissuade further revolts. As the army reached Syria, they hoped to

take supplies from fish in the river, but the local population was said to worship fish and

thus refused to let the Greeks do so. Afterwards, the army marched until they reached the Euphrates

river and finally began collecting food and supplies. Meanwhile, Artaxerxes was informed

of his upstart brother’s rebel force and amassed his army to face his rogue sibling, composed of

40,000 troops, as well as 150-200 scythed chariots and 6,000 bodyguard cavalry. Their battle was to

take at a site north of Babylon called Cunaxa. EVERYBODY WAS PANKRATION FIGHTING: CUNAXA

Upon approaching the battlefield, Cyrus encountered a trench set up by Artaxerxes and

initially expected the battle to begin there. However, the ditch was abandoned, so Cyrus

ordered his troops around it. Klearchos moved to the right with the Greek mercenary hoplites,

shielded by the Euphrates river. Next to them were the peltasts with the cavalry behind them.

Cyrus headed the centre with his 600 heavily-armed bodyguards and the Asian troops under the Persian

general Ariaios. Opposite the young rebel Prince, Artaxerxes’ army was arrayed out,

their royal scion positioning himself dead centre. Opposing Klearchos were Tissaphernes and the light

cavalry, and next to them was the heavy cavalry of the Persians. To the right was a contingent of

Egyptian cavalry, and surrounding Artaxerxes was a unit of his personal elite mounted bodyguards.

Both armies were situated next to the Euphrates and a hill on the other side where the settlement

was. Early in the afternoon, the battle commenced. The Artaxerxians began to push forward,

prompting Cyrus to move to the right flank to order Klearchos to attack the enemy's centre,

where his brother was. Klearchos refused to follow these directions, seeing the overwhelming numbers

on the other side of the field as too risky to engage with. Xenophon dashed to Cyrus’s side,

announcing the auspicious omens of victory from the sacrifices of the morning in the name of Zeus,

prompting an enthusiastic Cyrus to return to the centre. The Greeks then began to march to a

war song towards the enemy. A part of the phalanx broke forward from the bristling formation because

they were marching too fast and were excited, causing the others to rush behind them to secure

the cohesion of the unit, shouting the name of the God Ares . This, alongside the bashing of

their hoplite shields, struck fear in the hearts of some of the Persians, who began to flee,

the Greeks chasing them swiftly and mercilessly. The Persians sent their chariots forward,

but the Greeks responded by merely sidestepping to let them pass. Cyrus continued to occupy the

centre as he moved forward, but the left flank was left inactive for uncertain reasons (possibly due

to lack fo discipline). As such, Artaxerxes sent said left flank forward to surround the Greeks.

Cyrus understood the strategy and ran against him to prevent total encirclement. Cyrus engaged with

Artaxerxes’ royal bodyguard and caused them to flee. The rebel prince even hurled a javelin at

his brother, which struck Artaxerxes in the chest and then he pushed forward and managed to kill

the leader of the Royal Guard, Artagerses. Enraged, Artaxerxes took up his javelin and

threw it towards his treasonous brother. The javelin missed, but hit a dear friend of Cyrus,

Saltiphernes. Cyrus’s guards began to chase after Artaxerxes's guards, leaving the rebel prince on

his own. The remaining guard engaged to save the Shahanshah, much like Yazatas and Ahuras,

or the lesser heavenly and infernal creatures in Zoroastrianism are said to fight for Ahura

Mazda and Angra Mainyu or the good and evil deity of Zoroastrianism respectively. It is

in this brawl that Cyrus himself was mortally wounded. A Skythian healer and friend of Cyrus

called Artapatis jumped off his horse to save him, but it was too late. According to Xenophon,

this was possibly a ritual suicide. Xenophon, unveiled in his admiration and mourning for

his benefactor, sings the praises of Cyrus as a noble and heroic king in these final moments.

The Artaxerxian Persians then managed to take the rebel camp by sending their

right flank around the back and encircling the camp. Plundering began immediately,

and Cyrus’ concubines began fleeing for their lives. The Greeks continued to march on their foe,

unaware of the fact that their patron was dead. They chased the Persians further up the hill to

the river's left. They took the hill easily, after which Klearchos sent down a messenger

to check on the situation. The Greeks thought Cyrus was still alive but soon discovered that

the Prince of Persia, their patron and paymaster, was now slain. Upon hearing of the death of Cyrus,

the rebels began to disperse in chaos and anguish, fearing the vengeance of the great

King. The generals of the Greeks were scared for their lives and decided to ensure their return

home. We must imagine the Hellenic army, deep in enemy territory, desperate at having been

led into a doomed battle against the King of Kings by trickery and then now being stranded

in the ancient world's greatest superpower. The Greek generals resolved that their first

measure would be to try to talk to Artaxerxes and hopefully gain clemency and safe passage home.

● UNDER PRESSURE: THE GENERALS ARE EXECUTED (SPOILERS)

The Persians sent an envoy who said they could arrange a truce. Knowing it would be difficult

for the Greeks to do anything else, they agreed to a truce. The Persians initially

seemed optimistic about a peaceable outcome, and mentioned to the Greeks that they would

be let go. Tissaphernes also seemed keen to show kindness to the Greeks initially,

providing them with food for them to have their breakfast. While toasted bread with olives and

Halloumi was being prepared, the Persians asked for further negotiations. The generals obliged,

and Klearchos went to meet with Tissaphernes. The two generals began their discussion, with

Klearchos explaining that they didn’t know that they were being hired for such a treasonous act.

"And if, ever seized with rage, we wished to kill on the way, what other deed did we wish,

or, having killed our benefactor, to go forth in a struggle against him in the

flourishing of his forces, always expecting to be avenged by a great king? And of what

and how many hopes they would be deprived of, if I should attempt, even in what way, to harm you,

I will speak to you about this immediately. If I ever wished for Cyrus to be my friend,

I did so because I thought he was the most capable of benefiting whoever he wished. Today, however,

I see that you have under your power both the army of Cyrus and his country,

that you are now saving your Authority, and that the royal (military) force, which Cyrus treated

as his enemy, you now have as your ally. So, as things stand, will he be so

mad as not to want to be your friend?’’ Tissaphernes replied with assurances of safety

for the Greeks, while showing that Artaxerxes was still powerful and could destroy the Greeks if

need be and but also warnings of sycophants against Klearchos amongst the Greek ranks:

"But why, then when it was easy for us to destroy you, did we not do so? Know well that the cause of

this is my ardent desire to be seen as a friend to the Greek faithful. With that foreign army,

with which Cyrus went up, you bought his trust in him with wages, with this now I will go down

to the shores mighty, winning his trust in me for favours. So, in how many circumstances can you be

useful to me, you spoke. You only omitted one, the greatest one, the one I know, that of the heart.

Because the king alone has the right to wear it on the head, but on the heart, perhaps another

of you present here can carry it easily. (...)As for me, if you wish to come here, both generals

and captains, I will show you all those who accuse you of plotting against me and my army."

________________________________________ Klearchos agreed to bring all generals along for

negotiations and to reveal the culprit and sent forth the captains and generals alongside himself;

Proxenos, Menon, Agias and Sokrates. However, Tissaphernes was found to be lacking in one of

the three virtues that Herodotus cherished the Persians for; speaking the truth. In a

treacherous play, the satrap sent forth a contingent of cavalry which accosted and

arrested the shocked Greek generals. They were tried for oathbreaking and executed. Xenophon

spends some time discussing who these men were and making moral analyses of why they were executed.

Modern scholars often see this as Xenophon justifying his own later actions of taking

their place as the leader of Greek survivors. Indeed, when the remaining mercenaries

congregated and elected new leaders, Xenophon was among them. As one of his first edicts,

the warrior-turned-author proposed something he would become very well known for;

a daring retreat. In a charismatic speech to his men, Xenophon claimed they had a high chance of

survival, given that they were pious to the Gods of Olympus, who would protect them. Considering

that too much equipment would slow them down in the event of a Persian chase, he ordered that all

but the bare necessities be destroyed, including livestock and extra equipment. This was done,

and the army began to march back north, trying to reach the shore and, from there, go home.

Their goal was to reach the Carduchian mountains and find the source of the Tigris river. The

rearguard was under the command of Xenophon, while the vanguard was under the leadership of

the Spartan Cheirisophos, one of the newly elected generals of the Ten Thousand, alongside Timasion,

Xanthikles, Kleanor, Pheilisios and Xenophon himself. They reached the mountains at nightfall

and tried to march through while the Carduchians were lighting up many fires. In the next morning,

and after resting, the Greeks began their march once more, but the Carduchians,

equipped with slingshots, began to terrorise the renegades. The Greeks continued their march as

they were trying to gain control of the high ground hill-tops and stop being under such

duress from the Carduchians. Xenophon considered short stops during attacks to regroup the men,

but Cheirisophos considered this unnecessary, causing some confusion. The strategy was

essentially taking a hill, regrouping and then moving forward again, and Xenophon

let some people behind to defend the hills as they moved. Having then reached a third hill,

Xenophon considered setting up some defences there, but then some messengers told him they had

lost the first hill and were being chased by the Carduchians. Eventually, they reached a ravine and

people passed slowly through various small routes, shouting encouraging slogans to each other.

Eventually, they reached a relatively safe location and encamped for the night. Cheirisophos

and Xenophon buried their dead with full honours, and presumably discussed their future

strategy. Not having a guide was a difficult predicament, but the Ten Thousand decided to

continue on the next day. As they did so, they continued being attacked by Carduchian volleys,

but managed to fight them off thanks to the Cretan contingent’s excellent use of bows. After a while,

they at last reached the end of the mountains and saw the river Kendrites,

which was the separation between Armenia and Carduchia. The men were certainly relieved,

but still had seven stadia’s worth of distance to go. On the other side, Armenian, Mardaean,

and Chaldaean horsemen were stationed, presumably eating the Armenian delicacy of Lahmacun in their

mess halls. That night, Xenophon had a dream that he was with two young men tied by their legs,

who proceeded to fall down and let him run fast to his goal. The religious Xenophon took this as a

good omen, and during breakfast two young men did report to him that they saw some civilians hiding

provisions and clothes in a cave nearby the river. The troops split, with Cheirisophos going through

the river and Xenophon using a difficult pass to go through another route. This was a diversion

plan, as Cheirisophos attacked the soldiers on the other side and drew their attention.

Xenophon used this opportunity to move towards them, as the Carduchians were approaching from

behind. Cheirisophos managed to take the hills with some provisions in caves and sent peltasts

towards Xenophon, who positioned himself near the river. As the peltasts arrived, Xenophon ordered

an attack and promptly destroyed the enemy troops. ● MISSION IMPOSSIBLE: INSIDE ARMENIA

Astghik, the Armenian goddess of beauty, was lounging in her heavenly garden with

her guests Aphrodite of the Greeks and Anahita of the Persians, as they saw the Greeks pass into her

territory. The local satrap, Tiribazos, approached them on a horse and said he wanted to negotiate

peaceful terms with them for their passage. The new generals agreed, and began to march

through the cold lands of Armenia. Tiribazos was a cautious leader, and proceeded to scout

them with his army in case they misbehaved or burned any villages, a common fear for mercenary

armies. The mountains were cold and treacherous, causing the Greeks much trouble, but they ended

up passing through them and into a snowy valley. During their march, they had captured a Persian

who claimed Tiribazos was following them to attack them. Thus, they proceeded carefully until they

saw an enemy camp, which they swiftly conquered. They eventually reached a village which was rather

hospitable to them, a tradition that is common to this day throughout the Near East, the Caucasus

and the Balkans. It was here that Xenophon acquired a horse, as the Greeks assisted the local

Armenians with procuring the necessary horses for the annual tribute to the Shahanshah. Afterwards,

they continued, but Cheirisophos was so angry at the Persian guide because they stopped running

into villages and beat him, even though the guide told them there were no villages in the region.

The next day, the guide was gone, and Xenophon rebuked Cheirisophos for his blunder. Guideless,

the Ten Thousand continued until they reached the northern edges of Armenia, where the formidable

Taochians resided. The Taochians were a martial people and had fortresses in the region, one

of which was by a pass they had to go through to reach the shore. The generals debated the matter

during the dinner mess, with Cleanor mentioning they should take the fortress that night,

but Xenophon counselled that this would cause more losses due to the darkness. This constant

narrative of his own achievements seems to be deliberate, as one of Xenophon’s motivations may

have been to justify his actions and mistakes during the march, hence why Cheirisophos is

seen in a negative light constantly. In this case however, all generals

including Cheirisophos agreed, and the next day, part of the army was set to climb the mountain,

and another to go through the pass. Cheirisophos pressed into the pass and engaged the enemy,

defeating them on the first push. The Taochians realized the Greek treachery, and split their army

into two, one going down to defeat Cheirisophos and another to fight the Greeks who had reached

the ridge. However, the ridge Greeks fought them off easily and caused the entire army

to flee. After five days of a long march, the Greeks finally reached the fortress, but they

were without supplies. The locals, civilian and soldier alike, hurled stone volleys on the Greeks,

who were bombarded and had to retreat. Seeing this standstill, Cheirisophos waited for Xenophon, who

was still behind in the rearguard, to arrive. It was decided that they would starve out the stone

supplies of the enemy, and a Greek as cunning as Odysseas himself set himself near a pine

tree and distracted them, jumping back and forth from the tree and causing volleys to be thrown

at him. Eventually the volleys ran out and the Greeks dashed in an assault on the fortress. The

fight then was simple, as they broke through and entered the fortress. Fearing Hellenic vengeance,

many civilians jumped off the cliffs in an act of desperation and perished on the ravine

beneath. The Greeks took a few prisoners and then got all the supplies they needed.

● THE SEA! THE SEA! ON POSEIDON’S GUESTHOUSE: The sun gods Mitra and Apollo rode the sun as

the Greeks passed through more treacherous territories, such as the Charybeans and the

Scythinians. The former were apparently very formidable warriors according to Xenophon.

Eventually, the wealthy Silver-Mining City of Gymnias provided them with both supplies and

guidance to the Euxeinos Pontos, or for us, the Black Sea. The Greeks continued marching for five

days, but the march went through an enemy city of Gymnias, which they were requested to ravage. The

Greeks promptly did so, and continued. Finally, they glimpsed the salted waters that so much of

Greek history owes its debt to. The Greeks began to shout gleefully at the beautiful

sight of the sea, causing Xenophon to dash from the rearguard thinking they

were attacked. As they reached the top however, they understood that the shouting actually was:

THALATTA! THALATTA! The Attic Greek rendering of ‘The Sea! The Sea!’.

We can only imagine how happy the Greeks were for finally reaching the familiar sea,

even if it was not the Aegean, after months in a harsh hinterland such as Anatolia,

land of a thousand Gods. Thanking the guide and giving him many rings, a horse, and ten darics,

they proceeded through to the land of Colchis, what we would call southern Georgia today. The

Greeks, in need of provisions, looted the nearby villages, and procured much wealth with the

help of the local enemies, the Macronians. The Greeks continued their epic journey until they

reached the city of Trapezos, a Hellenic colony initially of the Milesians. Finally on fully

friendly territory, the Ten Thousand rejoiced in their eventual success. To honour their Odyssey,

the Greeks held athletic games, a custom as old as the Iliad’s games in honour of Patroklos and

conducted sacrifices to Herakles and Zeus. It is here that discussions on final repatriation began,

though the Greeks didn’t know they would still have to face more adventures on their journey

home. The soldiers listened to Cheirisophos, who mentioned he had a friend who could provide

them with long ships. As the Spartan left, the Trapezountians came to the Ten Thousand with

a proposal as old as any mercenary’s tale; to plunder the nearby enemy territory of the Drilae.

The mercenaries did as they requested and plundered for their own supplies,

not once thinking that they could, perhaps, be the baddies here. Eventually, as Cheirisophos had

not had enough ships for everyone to return, they decided to use the few ships they did have to send

the women and children, as well as the eldest generals such as Pheilisios and Sophaenetos,

back to Hellas. The rest of the Hellenes had to find another way, and for that,

they decided to march across the shore. It is during this interlude that Xenophon’s

religiosity comes to the fore, as he discusses the temple to Artemis he was to construct back in

Greece with parts of the bounty from the raids on Colchis. In the site of Skillounta near Olympia,

Xenophon was to retire and build a sanctuary in the honour of Artemis, taking inspiration and

emulation of the Ephesian temple to the same deity. This temple had annual feasts for the

entire city to partake in, with Xenophon as the first guardian of the temple. Around the temple,

beautiful groves were planted to make the temple worthy of the Goddess of the Hunt and Moon,

and the local citizens provided a tenth of the fruits as an annual sacrifice during

the feast. Xenophon’s religiosity may be due to his upbringing in a very superstitious Athens,

or it could be due to genuine gratitude for having survived such a treacherous journey back home,

or even a sort of justification for his wealth and success. Nevertheless Xenophon

also provided a tenth of the booty to the twin brother of Artemis, the god Apollo.

● KHERSONIAN ODYSSEY; ON THE WAY TO SINOPE: The Ten Thousand continued their march across

the northern shores of Anatolia. Moving from Kerassounta, they managed to reach

the land of the Mossynoecians. The locals saw the Greeks and agreed to give them safe

passage on one very familiar condition; to assist them in fighting off their enemies on

the way. The Ten Thousand were so good at marching that they took the capital

after the foes had fled. They thus divided the material amongst themselves and their allies,

and continued on their way to find Sinope. When they eventually reached the city,

they again held games in honour of the Olympians. The ambassadors of the Sinopians arrived and were

received by the Ten Thousand, giving them advice on how to proceed. They recommended to the Greeks

to go by sea, but this would require going into the territory of the Paphlagonians,

who may not be friendly towards them. The soldiers discussed this amongst themselves and eventually

agreed to take the sea route. The Sinopeans agreed to assist them with some guidance and supplies in

order to ensure their speedy expedition to Greece. Meanwhile, while this was happening, sycophants

amongst the Ten Thousand had begun to question Xenophon’s abilities and objectives. A certain

Boeotian, Thorax, was constantly bickering with Xenophon, at least if we take the latter at his

word. As the men began to act restlessly, unsure of Xenophon’s ability to send them home, he rushed

to defend himself. His speech implored them to listen to him as his plan was divinely sanctioned:

I hear, soldiers, that someone is bringing a charge against me, namely, that I am going to

deceive you and lead you to the Phasis. In the name of the gods, then, give ear to my words,

and if it appears that I am guilty of wrong, I ought not to leave this spot without paying the

penalty; but if it appears to you that my accusers are guilty of wrong, they ought to be dealt with

in such manner as they deserve. You doubtless know,” he continued, “where the sun rises and

where it sets; likewise, that if a man is to go to Greece, he must journey toward the west,

while if he wishes to go to the lands of the barbarians, he must travel in the opposite

direction, that is, toward the east. Now is there any one who could deceive you in this matter,

by maintaining that the place where the sun rises is the one where it sets and the place where it

sets is the one where it rises? Again, you surely know this also, that the north wind carries one

out of the Euxine to Greece, while the south wind carries you within, to the Phasis—indeed,

the saying is, `When the north wind doth blow, fair voyaging to Greece.' In this matter, again,

is it possible that anyone could deceive you into embarking when the south wind is blowing? But I

am going to put you aboard, you may say, when it is calm. Well, I shall be sailing on one ship,

you on a hundred at least. How, then, could I either force you to voyage along with me if you

did not choose, or deceive you into following my lead? But suppose you have been deceived

and bewitched by me and we have come to the Phasis; we accordingly disembark upon the shore;

you will perceive, likely enough, that you are not in Greece; and I, who have done the deceiving,

will be one lone man, while you, the deceived, will be close to ten thousand, with arms in your

hands. Then how could a man bring down punishment upon himself more surely than

by planning in that way for himself and for you? Xenophon’s impassioned speech ensured his success,

and the soldiers soon agreed with him. They decided to push forward as planned. Xenophon

had the ringleaders punished. The narrative is certainly biassed towards Xenophon, as he is the

author of the text which we are discussing. We see here his attempt at praising himself, building up

his virtues and honesty as guarantees of his skills both as commander and as leader. These

skills, certainly products of his aristocratic education, make the Anabasis intriguing as an

insight into the psyche of Xenophon, and his philosophy of religion as well as leadership.

● HOMAGE TO PAPHLAGONIA: CONCLUSION The Greeks had passed through a large landmass,

but had yet to satiate their nostos, or homesickness. Xenophon had proven

himself to be a capable leader, but his biggest adventures were yet to come. The

Ten Thousand began to sail towards Paphlagonia. This ancient nation, listed as an ally of the

Trojans in the Iliad, was actually rather diplomatic in its engagement with the

Ten Thousand. The Generals of Paphlagonia agreed to host them and threw them a lavish

starlight feast replete with ritual sacrifices. Here, various local dances were displayed,

such as the dance of Sitalkas, a Thracian hero, and a dance of thieves put on by the Magnesians.

The next day, the Ten Thousand agreed to pass through the region without harming anyone and

thus went to the Greek colony of Sinope. As they were travelling, a disagreement amongst the troops

arose as to who would be ideal to manage the rest of the trip. Tensions were arising, for instance,

about whether it was proper for Lacedaemonians to command Athenians and vice versa. Disagreements on

the use of land or sea routes also ensued, and as such different itineraries were set up. As such,

the army was split into three, each with different travel plans. The Arcadians and Achaeans took

ships to pillage the nearby Bithynians on the southern edge of the Black Sea. Cheirisophos and

his troops began to march to the city of the Heracleonians, while Xenophon took ships and

decided to go to the border of Thrace and Heraclea before continuing on foot towards the hinterland.

The first group launched their first raids in Thracian territory in the settlement of Kalpis,

but some Thracian peltasts struck back, showering them with missile fire. Cheirisophos later went

to Kalpis and settled there. Meanwhile, when Xenophon was marching, they bumped into some

local elders who told him what had happened. In response, Xenophon brought his men close to

the Arcadian contingent and camped near the port of the city. In the meantime, Cheirisophos died

after drinking bad medicine, an unceremonious end to his career. The Greeks then decided to

regroup and try to go home together, but before they proceeded on this next leg of the journey,

the sacrificial signs they sought were not favourable, giving the superstitious troops reason

for concern. Xenophon, who was accused of rigging the sacrifices to build a colony there; assuming

him to be exploiting them for his ambitions, spoke to the soldiers and compelled them to

leave their supplies and go to a proper spot to fight their way to their comrades as both groups

were trapped in Thracian territory and considered raiders. Cheirisophos’s replacement sent out for

supplies via looting nearby villages; but were attacked by Persian troops led by Pharnabazos,

who had arrived in the area. That night, during mess time, the Bithynians attacked once more and

the fear of another attack caused the Greeks to spend the night on guard. The next day, they took

a defensive position, and after collecting and burying their dead, they tried to find food. Then,

they once again found Persian troops sent by Pharnabazos, run by Spiridates and Rathmines.

Finally seeing good entrail signs, Xenophon ordered that backup lochoi be set up behind

the vanguard to fill in any gaps. The soldiers agreed, and Xenophon began to march through the

canyon where the enemy lay, mounted on cavalry. The peltasts went first, attacking the Persians,

who marched forward on horseback to chase them away. Shouting ‘Zeus - Saviour! Herakles - Guide!’

the infantry of the Greeks moved forward with their spears at arms. The Persians immediately

began to run away at the sight, and the Greeks were victorious. Some time later,

Kleandros returned with two triremes, but after a misunderstanding, a soldier was falsely accused of

trying to steal some sheep. Kleandros was furious, but the soldier was saved by the

head of his lochos, Agasias. A furious Kleandros demanded he be stoned, but Xenophon intervened,

and after some debate, the spirits calmed down and the entire army went to Chrysopolis.

GOLD-TOWN: EXPEDITIONS AND MADNESS Helios, the Greek God of the Sun, and Zalmoxis,

the deity of the Thracians, were having Greek coffee as they watched the Ten Thousand arrive at

their destination. After lodging in Chrysopolis, whose name incidentally means ‘Gold-Town’,

the Ten Thousand continued on their way. However, from the Fields of Asphodel , Cheirisophos must

have been laughing because before he died, he had encountered a Spartan general called Anaxibios,

who at the time was on an expedition against Persia. Cheirisophos had promised that the Ten

Thousand would assist Anaxibios in his campaign, but Pharnabazos had actually bribed Anaxibios,

and he tried to send them away with promises of pay. Anaxibios later announced to other forces

in the region that their capture meant they could be sold as slaves, thus placing a bounty on them.

The Ten Thousand were furious and began to fight back into Chrysopolis,

chasing the traitorous Spartan. Xenophon, who had relinquished his command to a certain Coeratadas

and was prepared to go home, intervened once more at the request of Anaxibios. As if this wasn’t

already a lot like a Greco-Persian soap opera, it soon turned out that Pharnabazos was no longer

interested in the deal with Anaxibios, as he was no longer navarch due to his shenanigans and the

arrival of the Spartan Harmost Aristarchos, and as such did not listen to Anaxibios's messengers

reminding him of the agreement. So, in revenge, Anaxibios tried to convince Xenophon to invade

Pharnazabos’ satrapy. Xenophon agreed to this and, to that end, decided to ask for military

assistance from the local Thracian lord Seuthes. Seuthes was a shrewd negotiator, demanding

Xenophon and his soldiers gain some territory for him, in exchange for which he would provide

provisions for his campaign against Pharnabazos. After some pillaging, it was time for a pay

collection, but trouble was afoot. There was not enough money to pay the Greeks what was

promised, which caused the mercenaries to accuse Xenophon of embezzlement. Xenophon rebuked the

accusation and deflected the blame onto an intermediary called Herakleides. Meanwhile,

Seuthes was begging Xenophon to stay and continue fighting for him. Xenophon decided, as usual, to

ask the Olympians whether or not this was a good idea. After failing to reach them via email, he

consulted through sacrifices once more, whereupon it was determined that the omens were favourable

to them leaving Thrace. This was good timing, for another local king called Medosades was

presently retaking the territory the Greeks were pillaging and was demanding they leave. As such,

the general went to Seuthes and demanded enough pay for them to leave. Seuthes finally agreed, and

armed with money and provisions, the Greeks began their march home. Xenophon managed to distribute

the money fairly amongst the troops, enabling them to finally reap the fruits of their labour.

● THE FINAL GREEKDOWN: JOURNEY’S END:

Athena, Goddess of War and Wisdom of the Greeks, was polishing her shield as the Ten Thousand got

upon their ships and sailed once more to the city of Lampsacos on the tips of the Bosporos.

Here the locals received them eagerly, providing them with many gifts and lavish hospitality. While

in Lampsacos, an oracle called Eukleides was invited by Xenophon to check the entrails of

a sacrifice to the God Apollo. Eukleides told the general that it was not Apollo,

but Zeus, who was not allowing him to return home. Xenophon realised that, of all the Olympians, he

had forgotten to offer sacrifice to the Father of the Gods and promptly did so on the next day. The

Ten Thousand then continued to move to the south to the former territory of the Kingdom of Troy,

then crossed Mount Iden, and moved to camp in the city of Pergamon, near the modern city of Izmir.

It was there that the Ten Thousand, as true students of Athena’s Arts of War,

came across their final challenge when they heard of a local Persian notable called Asidatis who

was dwelling in the valley. This was a very rich noble whose money could help fund the

Ten Thousand’s final journey home. All Xenophon required, his interlocutors told him, was 300 men,

and he could capture Asidatis, his family, and all of his property. Xenophon did the same thing

he always did; try to double-check with the Olympians. The oracle he consulted this time,

Basis the Heleian, checked the entrails and gave the Ten Thousand the all-clear. After a fine

dinner with his comrades, presumably of souvlaki with pita bread and a dose of gyros and herbs,

Xenophon took his favourite captains and set forth towards the valley with 600 of their best men.

The Ten Thousand arrived at around midnight, as the Goddess of Ghosts Melinoe was coming

out with her entourage of shades. Unfortunately for them, they were terrible at catching animals

and soldiers at night, most of whom escaped them. They then proceeded to a guard tower on

the perimeter of Asidatis’ estate and laid siege to it. This was not successful either due to its

height and the spirited defence of the personnel within. As such, the Greeks tried the Italian Job

approach by trying to dig below it. This failed as well, as someone from within used a spike utilized

a spike and murdered one of the assailants who was close by. The launchers nearby in

the tower could not attack further, and the assailants asked for Xenophon’s aid. However,

it was Itamenes who came to their aid with the cavalry of Assyrians and Hyrcanians and helped

them gain the upper hand. The attackers used their position to capture all the cattle and

slaves of Asidates, and then Xenophon proceeded to leave the position in a circular formation.

The defenders were constantly barraging them with volleys of arrows and slingshots, which

caused the Greeks much distress. They received help from Prokles, a Spartan who was ruling the

region on behalf of the Persians, and Gongylos, a local who had given them assistance previously.

It was thus that Asidates’s cattle and wealth, as well as many slaves, were captured. The next day,

Xenophon offered sacrifices to the Gods once more, while Asidates, terrified the Greeks

would return and capture him, escaped from his tower and hid in some nearby villages. However,

the Greeks were as shrewd as their hero Odysseas and got wind of this. At once, they dashed to

his location and seized him, his wife and his children. And thus, the final adventure was won.

The Greeks returned to Pergamon, where they engaged with the local Spartans

who were there on a campaign against the Persians. The Spartan general, Thimbron,

who had just arrived with his troops, was happy to meet the Ten Thousand and

welcomed them heartily. Xenophon then resigned his leadership and allowed

any of his troops who wished to join the Spartan campaign to do so. The Spartans then

proceeded to fight against Tissaphernes and Pharnabazos. The text ends here,

though we may suspect that Xenophon continued to fight for the Spartans, as his other book,

Hellenica, describes these battles in detail. However, this is where our story must end. In

the final paragraph, Xenophon gives us an overview of the regions he campaigned at:

The governors of all the King's territories that we traversed were as follows: Artimas of Lydia,

Artacamas of Phrygia, Mithradates of Lycaonia and Cappadocia, Syennesis of Cilicia, Dernes

of Phoenicia and Arabia, Belesys of Syria and Assyria, Rhoparas of Babylon, Arbacas of Media,

Tiribazus of the Phasians and Hesperites; then the Carduchians, Chalybians, Chaldaeans,

Macronians, Colchians, Mossynoecians, Coetians, and Tibarenians, who were independent; and then

Corylas governor of Paphlagonia, Pharnabazus of the Bithynians, and Seuthes of the Thracians in

Europe. The length of the entire journey, upward and downward, was two hundred and fifteen stages,

one thousand, one hundred and fifty parasangs, or thirty-four thousand, two hundred and fifty-five

stadia; and the length in time, upward and downward, a year and three months.

AS YOU GO OUT ON THE ROAD TO ISFAHAN: THE END Thus, our story comes to a close. Xenophon’s

adventures probably continued under Thimbron and then under his replacement Dercylidas. Eventually,

a Spartan king arrived, the fabled Agesilaos, whom Xenophon met and befriended. The two most

likely campaigned together until 394 BCE, when they marched back home to

Sparta. Xenophon settled in an estate granted to him by Agesilaos in the region of Scillos,

living a comfortable life supported with money from his war spoils. Since Xenophon ended up

fighting on the Spartan side in the Battle of Chaeronia, the Athenians banished him from the

city, which perhaps is a motivation for his writing these events to justify his actions.

Eventually, in 371 BCE, after the Battle of Leuktra, Xenophon’s estate was confiscated,

after which, according to the much later historian Diogenes Laertios, he moved to Corinth,

where he died in 354 BCE. In the later stages of his life, he wrote many more texts on matters such

as leadership and the histories of Hellas, as well as treatises on education such as the Cyropaedia,

or the Education of Cyrus the Great. This text is a fictionalized account of the education of

the Shahanshah and how this defined his rulership and the relationship between

Medes and Persians. Xenophon’s philosophy, forged by both his aristocratic background

and his martial experiences, meant that he had a conservative outlook on life. For instance,

his Enkomion, or Praise of Agesilaos, makes the case that his virtue and magnanimity made him an

ideal ruler. He also had his son go through the Spartan education system, or the Agoge,

where Spartan children lived through a harsh, militaristic education from age 7 to age 30. As

such, Xenophon was an anti-democrat, instead preferring what he considered to be the more

meritocratic systems of Persia under Cyrus and the mixed constitution of Sparta. Consequently,

Xenophon provided us with some of the best information on the society of the Spartan

city-state, as his Polity of the Lakedaemonians is one of our main sources of how the intricacies

of the society worked in terms of military, governance, economy, and social relations.

The mercenary, philosopher, enterprising adventurer, and raider that was Xenophon

is just as well known as Thucydides and Herodotos, though his reception has been especially strong in

terms of his political philosophy by contemporary thinkers such as Leo Strauss. His Anabasis of

Xenophon is both emotional in its tension and captivating in its adventurous pace. With its

unique storyline structure, it reads as much like a novel than an annalistic account of history,

with drama, conflict, and interpersonal struggles of individuals carrying the story. It can be seen

as a treatise on leadership or as a treatise on survival and military strategy. Ultimately,

we can propose that it gave us an insight into the mind of Xenophon, as well as provided us with an

overview of Persia, Mesopotamia, and Anatolia, which while not as detailed as Herodotos’s often

fanciful yet surprising anthropological insights, helps us with seeing how people behaved in war and

in the presence of mercenaries. It is, as such, a tale of adventure and intrigue for fortune but

also a tale of the philosophical development of our author. It is as much a Persian, an Armenian,

a Thracian, and an Anatolian tale as it is a Greek one, for without the Persian politicians

who set the wheels in motion, it would not have happened, and without local interlocutors,

the mercenaries would not have survived. Despite the constant Nostos or homesickness

in the text, perhaps it is the journey that was more important than the destination for

Xenophon. We must thus end our tale with the words of a Persian, Farid ud-Din. A

Persian Sufi poet who resided in Nishapur who perished as a civilian in a war by the Mongols,

his ‘Conference of the Birds’ would find some resonance with the Greek general:

This ocean can be yours; why should you stop beguiled by dreams of evanescent

dew? The secrets of the sun are yours, but you Content yourself with motes trapped

in its beams. Turn to what truly lives, reject what seems – Which matters more,

the body or the soul? Be whole: desire and journey to the Whole.

Rumi and Xenophon would also find agreement with the Constantinopolitan-turned-Alexandrian

Greek poet Constantine Cavafy. A gay Greek poet of the 19th Century,

a stranger in a strange land with a worldview of cultivated cosmopolitanism,

Cavafy’s poem ‘Ithaka’ is something that Xenophon may very well have agreed with:

Keep Ithaka always in your mind. Arriving there is what you’re destined for. But don’t hurry the

journey at all. Better if it lasts for years, so you’re old by the time you reach the island,

wealthy with all you’ve gained on the way, not expecting Ithaka to make you rich.

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