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*�߅U�t/�Q#�p;p3K��Rh�%�3q��%�U3����희6�QQ�o�f�愬G=�e����E$��.����N� ��֛����`^6�q֨ͨ����y۟ƫH�/����K��O�bmQ�C��/z��9��*�� �w^MB�����ڨ�f,�;��N=�?�H{ ��S��L���s1�je����T77L�>m�ޣs�?w��F'��%�*��U�������{�ݲH�����z���5]�����%b��z�����?�8��R9�=)�J�y�:�!����{c�G���k.mCR��l?}�:�X���ά���I����R�b�r���'N�#��o�^ I�.?�F� ?v�ٜ��N@�����n� �n���O MtW�})�+3����⊶m�?t�U���,�ڤK]�QU�(�J��~T�!��*(��f�����6�h��f �c�ʖ'��+Jr��6�'�*r��8�Q9Y�~��NA�(��b��؍�q�J���w�(����R��{�NRS�U�(���s1�p��U�wo��[�|��S���j>6�3ѱ�J_�8\��V���v����"���Q@ ��� ��9�/�h����~��S,�c�#� �b;�;|�Z��W����E,��n \���*H�J(� �I������E1�������J���`��1ԵVsvU�V;���4��C .;�ފ*��Q�����PKvC�nJ(�Q�n����"���%G@xQEGQ(s��ܱ�I�>]������ �ݹ���*&m��qE\R؆{��k���� �� (�� ebw-�z�Iܷ+��(&DΨy�G#H뜝��z�E�d�P9f_L�ɼ����E����z~"�'�PJ� �ɜ"�S��bи ?A�VN�ܚ;�0?x���i%���f�h����W�)]Dbl6���Gy^�OAE�����:g���� �I��c/�j6�H�e�ނ�(#��M�j���LQECܙnViW?)��f�y~sE�� (����� (When did our story really begin?�� PC�u��Ml�����Who were the first Homo sapiens?�� @C�u��f䠭���Not just humans who looked like us,�� X����� Xbut people who thought and behaved as we do.�� XC�u�炉������People we would recognise as truly one of us.��C�u�炭Ԡá��We, Homo sapiens, first appeared over 300,000 years ago.��`C�u���$�����We were not the first species of human.�� ����� We're not the biggest, we're not the strongest,�� �C�u@��������we're just the latest in a long line of other humans.�� �ȡ Yet, a few hundred thousand years later, we are the only ones��PC�u��\�á��left, and the most dominant form of life on this planet.���C�u��������I'm Ella Al-Shamahi, a paleoanthropologist.���C�u��S져���People spend their whole lives trying to find�� ࠪ��� �a fossil as significant as this.���C�u@��qt�ɡÁYou might think you know the story of human evolution, but now���ԡ�we are discovering it's stranger and more dramatic than we ever imagined.���C�u����ʡāThis was something that wiped out 13 people in the same family.��XC�u���d�����Thanks to ground-breaking new science, we are�� ࠭��� �rewriting the story of our origins.�� C�u���D�����From our tentative first steps...���C�u���������..to the migrations that carried us across continents.�� C�u��L�̡ƁAnd our encounters with other human species we met along the way.��PC�u��)Ԡ����It's small, it's really tiny.�� ؠ���� �I can see why you would call it the Hobbit.�� C�u��G������From the first marks we made on cave walls...�� 0C�u��_D�����..to the rise of cities...���C�u��u젺���..these are the unlikely events that forged us.�� ����� Moments of chance, but also ingenuity,�� �C�u���Ԡ����of beauty and destruction.���C�u@���������This is us, this is our story, and it's what happened����Ρȁ�in the 99% of our history before the invention of writing, when our���C�u���t�ϡɁstory wasn't written in books, but was written in our bones and DNA.��`C�u���,�����This is the story of how we became...�� �C�u��䠒���..human.���C�u��u�����This story begins in Africa, in a time long ago...��XC�u���������..in a world before we existed at all.�� PC�u���Ġ����In many ways, this world would feel familiar...�� Ƞ�����..teeming with animals we'd recognise.�� xC�u���ܠ����But there was one crucial difference.�� �C�u��D�����This world was inhabited by not one,���������but by many other types of human.�� �C�u@��C�š��We're used to living in a world filled with other species.��࠷����Over eight million share our planet with us.��0C�u��e�͡ǁBut there is only one of us, only one human species, Homo sapiens.��(C�u@��~ that it wasn't always like this.��`�á��`The world before us was alive with other human activity.��C�u����á��Around six million years before Homo sapiens appeared...�� �C�u���̠����..some primates left the trees.�� �C�u���L�ϡɁThey started walking upright and over time, began using stone tools.���C�u��|�����These toolmakers became the earliest form of human.�� �C�u����ơ��Over millions of years, these humans continued to evolve...���C�u��7��ơ��..forming a diverse family tree of different human species.��(C�u@��YĠȡWho were these other humans and how are we connected to them?��x�����xWell, they're all part of our extended family,�� �C�u@��t̠����so our parents, grandparents, great-aunts, cousins.��@�����@Some were our ancestors, others just relatives.�� HC�u���T�š��But all of them were part of our lineage, our family tree,���������that spanned millennia.��PC�u��� emerged...�� ������..there were at least six different human species.�� XC�u���T�����And using the latest scientific data,�� ����� we can reconstruct what they might have looked like.�� �C�u���������There were so many species of human.����ǡ���You had Homo erectus, an ancestor of ours, and an incredibly���C�u����Ρȁsuccessful species, because they lived for about two million years.�� �C�u��/��ѡˁNow, Homo erectus was actually the first in our genus to leave Africa.��C�u��QD�¡��And we also think that they were the first to use fire.�� 0C�u��jl�����There's also Homo neanderthalensis,�� `����� `who you probably know as the Neanderthals.���C�u����ǡ��Neanderthals lived in Europe, all the way into Central Asia.���������They were cold-adapted.���C�u���ܠ����And they were expert hunters.�� 0C�u���,�����There was also Homo floresiensis,�� x����� xwho some people affectionately call the Hobbit...�� (C�u�����..because they were only about a metre tall,�� ����� so that's about three and a half feet.��XC�u�������Tiny, and yet adapted for living on an island.��@C�u��(l�¡��It seems like a fantastical world, and I can't help it,��`�����`it reminds me of Lord Of The Rings.���C�u��B\�����Only, instead of a world with elves and dwarves,�������you had a magical place with other humans.���C�u��|������The human family tree had many branches.�� �C�u���䠿���But which branch did Homo sapiens first emerge from?��8C�u���\�����We don't know for sure,��Р�����but we're getting closer than ever to finding out.�� XC�u��>ܠϡɁFor the longest time, we thought we knew the origins of our species.��hC�u��TD�����We thought we began 200,000 years ago in East Africa.�� C�u@��s������But new revelations from out here in Morocco,�� �ȡ from a part of Africa that people weren't really considering,��C�u����ɡÁare forcing us to rethink our very first steps on this planet.���C�u@��������In a remote cave in North West Africa,�� Ƞơ�� �a chance discovery uncovered some mysterious human remains.��C�u���������Someone unexpected was living here...�� �C�u�� ������..thousands of years earlier than we imagined.�� �C�u@�� ������This is Jebel Irhoud 1, and it was a complete mystery,�������because some of its features are very much like us,���C�u�� �ܠ͡ǁvery Homo sapiens, and others are much older, much more primitive.��pC�u�� �����So, if you look at this individual's face,���������its face looks a lot like ours.�� HC�u�� 4䠷���The Homo sapiens face is incredibly gracile.�������We have incredibly delicate features.�� �C�u�� M������They, kind of, tuck in under our brain case.��࠭����If you imagine a prehistoric human,�� �C�u@�� i kind of more prognathic,�� ������ �we say, much more kind of jutting forwards face.�� C�u@�� �ԠϡɁThis individual's face is much more tucked under, it's much shorter.�� ������ �But there are some features that aren't us.�� XC�u�� ��ǡ��Notice this brow ridge up here, this supraorbital structure.��Р�����Now, look at me.��hC�u�� �$�ơ��You don't get modern humans walking around today with these�� ��� �massive things on top of their eyes.�� �C�u@� ʔ�ΡȁI mean, it would actually be quite terrifying today if we saw that.�� ������ �Now, the brain case is not us.��xC�u�� 圠����You see how round my brain case is?���������It's globular, whereas this is almost stretched out.�� �C�u@�� �Ġġ��It's almost like somebody's got my brain case but kind of�� ������ �stretched the back of it out.����¡��8It's almost like straight-on, the face is Homo sapiens,���C�u�� $䠲���but from the other angles, it's not us.���C�u@�� Z|�����These finds posed a mystery.�� ��ѡˁ �They were anomalies that didn't fit neatly into the human family tree.��C�u�� �������They looked partly like Homo sapiens...�� C�u�� � �����..and partly like an earlier human.�� �C�u�� �Ԡ����So, the question was, was this a different species,��蠰����or could it be an early version of us?�� �C�u�� $�͡ǁSeveral decades after the initial discoveries came a breakthrough.���C�u�� 8������Archaeologists uncovered another 16 fossils...���C�u�� M$�����..all with the same blend of features.�� �C�u�� �䠰���With each new find, the evidence grew.�� �C�u�� �Ġ����These were not some other species, but Homo sapiens,��PC�u�� �����with hints of an earlier ancestor.���C�u@�� #��ʡāBut it wasn't until archaeologists were able to more accurately��@�ϡɁ@date the remains that the final piece of the puzzle fell into place.���C�u@�� [$�ȡThe archaeologists, using new and improved dating techniques,�� 0�ɡÁ 0were able to give us dates for these fossils, and they tell us��0C�u�� }������that these individuals lived about 300,000 years ago.��8�����8And that is mind-boggling,���C�u�� � only about 200,000 years old.��C�u�� �T�ȡWhat these fossils tell us is that our species, Homo sapiens,���C�u�� � �����is 100,000 years older than we thought.�� ������ �We are a third older than we realised.�� �C�u�� �T�����This fossil went from being enigmatic�� ������ �and basically a mystery,��0C�u�� ��ɡÁto being one of the most important fossils in our whole field.��hC�u�� �ɡÁThousands of miles from East Africa where we thought we began,��(�����(and far older than expected...��C�u�� ever found.��0C�u��R��ʡāAnd they have forced us to rethink other finds across Africa...���C�u��r��ǡ��..which are painting an entirely new picture of our origins,�� ����� suggesting that Jebel Irhoud...���C�u���D�����..was just one of many emerging populations,��𠭡���all in the process of taking shape.�� �C�u��������It's...��x�ɡÁxIt's a bit like having a peek behind the curtain of evolution.���C�u��������This is a stage in the journey to becoming us.��@C�u�� ��š��I wonder what it would feel like to come face-to-face with�� ������ �one of the people from Jebel Irhoud?��HC�u��JĠ����If we were to look into their eyes...��0�����..into those quite delicate features,�� C�u��f䠭���would we see ourselves within them?�� �C�u���䠾���The answer is, they were not modern humans like us.�� ������ �Not yet.��8C�u@�����¡��They were an earlier stage in our evolutionary journey,��Ƞǡ���bridging the gap between us and our ancient human ancestors.���C�u�����ˡŁOur emergence was actually slow, and honestly, at the beginning,���������we were just not that special.�� �C�u��4�ġ��Now, early iterations of Homo sapiens, like Jebel Irhoud,��@�����@were popping up all over Africa.���C�u��?��ɡÁWe once believed in a single origin, a sole cradle of humanity��xC�u��T�̡Ɓin East Africa, but our story is far richer and more interesting.��HC�u@���������The latest evidence suggests we emerged gradually,����Сʁ�across thousands of miles, and over hundreds of thousands of years...��pC�u��nj�����..appearing bit by bit...�� 8C�u���T�����..like a series of sparks...��������..igniting across the African continent.�� �C�u��l�����THUNDERCLAP��РʡāhAnd yet, Homo sapiens could have easily vanished without trace.��`C�u��A�ġ��Because just as we were finding our place in the world...�� C�u��_������..something threatened to wipe us out altogether.�� �C�u����ġ��It's in East Africa's Great Rift Valley that we can trace���������the next chapter of our story.���C�u@���Ԡ����This dynamic landscape holds some of the clearest��x�ϡɁxevidence of the forces that set our species on a radically new path.���C�u��ĠˡŁWhen they say the Great Rift Valley of East Africa is a dramatic�� Ƞ���� �place, they're not kidding.�� pC�u@��������I mean, look at it.�������I can literally hear it bubbling behind me, and it's�� ��͡ǁthe result of a geological process that sees three tectonic plates��hC�u��C�Ρȁtearing away from each other, which results in a dynamic landscape.���C�u@��jt�¡��And even though this part doesn't look that hospitable,��`�����`it has been a home to people for a very long time.�� HC�u���d�����This is one of the most fossil-rich regions in Africa.��8C�u���4�ġ��Its unusual geology has not only preserved human remains,���C�u���ܠΡȁbut also offers a glimpse into the forces that drove our evolution.��xC�u��������So, within the lakebeds here, if you dig deep, you can��`�����`actually extract sediment cores.���C�u��4�����Now, one here in Ethiopia was about 280 metres deep,��(C�u��,\�����so that represents over 600,000 years.���ġ���And within that sediment, it's a bit like a time machine,���C�u��M̠����because bits of ancient environment are trapped.�� C�u��a������By analysing these sediment layers,�� H����� Hscientists have uncovered a window�� C�u��|\�����into the world some of the earliest�� ����� Homo sapiens were living in.�� `C�u@���4�����The information from those sediment cores has been��p�ǡ��pcollated into this graph, and when you zoom out, it actually�� ��͡ǁ paints a really interesting picture, because for the first 300,000���C�u@���$�����years, you see a period of relative climate stability.����á���But then, at around 275,000 years ago, something shifts,��@C�u����ɡÁand we see a period of fluctuations, volatility, between humid��HC�u@���\�ȡand arid periods, in a way that just wasn't happening before.���̡Ɓ�Now, East and West Africa are linked in a kind of climate seesaw.��HC�u����ġ��So, when one is humid, the other is arid, and vice versa.�� �C�u��=��ʡāOver thousands of years, wild climate swings engulfed Africa...��HC�u��cĠ����..plunging fledgling populations of Homo sapiens...�� C�u���d�����..into a world of extremes.���C�u���ܠ����Ecosystems were destroyed.�� C�u���$�����Rivers and lakes swelled...��XC�u��������..cutting people off from one another.��pC�u��+$�����Elsewhere, grasslands turned to desert.��C�u��Yd�����Survival was a battle against relentless change.��hC�u��� �á��I do think that when we look at these zoomed-out graphs,�� ������ �we sometimes make a vital error.���C�u���4�����We forget to zoom back in.�� `����� `After all, human evolution is about humans.�� hC�u�����¡��There are people like you and me experiencing the peaks��P�����Pand troughs of those graphs.���C�u@��ㄠš��People who were suddenly facing droughts, or flash floods,�� ������ �or perhaps the disappearance of a food source.�� 8C�u��,�����Entire communities...���C�u��,T�����..found themselves isolated.���C�u��Wt�����Some populations dwindled.���C�u���젯���The ones who couldn't adapt died out.��C�u���������This struggle for survival could have wiped�� P����� PHome sapiens out altogether.�� C�u��������But it didn't.��𠥡���It had the opposite effect.��H������It drove us forward.���C�u��U��¡��Under pressure, isolated populations learnt new skills.��@C�u���d�ΡȁThose who could adapt and innovate had a better chance of survival.��@C�u@���T�á��Then, as the climate changed, groups came back together.��X�����XThey shared skills and crucially, they interbred...���C�u��유����..passing beneficial traits on to their children.�� hC�u��������It was a process that began to change us permanently.�� HC�u��3�����The people who survived emerged stronger than ever.��C�u���������Today, most of us live in towns and cities...�� C�u@��� �����..and so, the reality of being affected by the climate����ġ���as a result of being a nomadic person kind of escapes us.�� �C�u���\�����But you've actually got a really good example here,�������with the Afar people.���C�u@��� �����They are nomadic, and so they get pushed�� ������ �and pulled around the landscape.�� ؠ�����And it would've been very similar with our ancestors,�� PC�u��䠲���but actually in a more extreme fashion.�� �C�u��2 moving around,�� @����� @would've at times met, and when they did,�� �C�u��GT�ɡÁthey would've, of course, shared skills and knowledge and DNA.�� C�u@��fl�¡��It was this mixing of groups that ultimately brought us�� ������ �closer to becoming the Homo sapiens we are today.���C�u@���\�͡ǁOur origins as a species are so much more complicated and dynamic,��x�ҡ́xinvolving not just East Africa, but the whole of the African continent.���C�u@���ܠơ��Africa was a continent rich in diversity, and climate acted��0�ɡÁ0as a sort of catalyst, blending these various groups together.��hC�u���¡��And so, we were formed as a result of a mosaic of these�� ������ �different populations across Africa.�� hC�u��ԠСʁIt was our diversity, our resilience in the face of climate change...��C�u��-,�����..it shaped us, our minds and our bodies,�� ����� and transformed us into a new and evolved human.���C�u��h in Africa�� h����� hat this pivotal moment...���C�u���Ԡ����..because what happened then changed us forever.�� �C�u���l�����What began as diverse, scattered populations...�� HC�u���䠶���..in the face of adversity came together...�� C�u��Ġá��..propelling us to become one stronger, smarter species.���C�u��z��¡��This is a museum that houses some of the most important�� ������ �fossils in the human story.��C�u@����ơ��And one of those fossils is Herto 1, easily one of the most����š���significant Homo sapiens fossils that has ever been found.��`C�u@���Ԡơ��And that's because this individual is one of the very first�� �ϡɁ in our lineage that we can describe as an anatomically modern human.���C�u��䴠����Its physical characteristics��h�̡Ɓhand traits are overwhelmingly similar to those of yours and mine.���C�u����ǡ��And if you look at this individual compared to Jebel Irhoud,��@�����@look how rounded it is.�� �C�u���ɡÁSome people have put forward this intriguing idea that perhaps���C�u��1�ʡāthe shape of the skull reflects a change in brain organisation.���C�u��P\�͡ǁThis process of globularisation has been linked to language skills���������and coordination.�� �C�u@��kܠ����And it is really exciting to consider that this��h�ɡÁhchange in shape reflects a really significant shift in the way���C�u���$�����that Homo sapiens were starting to think.�� C�u@���$�����These larger, reorganised brains had slowly�� ��ʡā �but surely opened a gap between Homo sapiens and our ancestors.��C�u���Ġ����But it wasn't only the size��X�����Xand shape of our brains that set us apart.�� �C�u@�����ȡOne of the lines of evidence for this are actually the teeth.�� ������ �Now, scientists have discovered that if you look very�� 8C�u@����ɡÁclosely at the teeth, what you find are very fine lines called�� ��Сʁ �perikymata, that represent about a week in the life of an individual.���C�u��3d�ǡ��So, that means you can count how long an individual has been��@�����@alive, a bit like tree rings.�� C�u@��O������And so, if you look at a Homo erectus individual�� ����� and compare it to, say, a Homo sapiens living today,���C�u��r��ϡɁour species takes an incredibly long time to get to sexual maturity.���C�u@���l�á��From the lines in their teeth, we know that Homo sapiens�� ȠɡÁ �children were growing up much more slowly than earlier humans.���C�u���|�ɡÁThe thinking behind it is that we needed a really long time to���C�u���$�����learn how to use these brains of ours.�� C�u���,�����And the longer that you exist in childhood,�� ������ �the longer you have to learn.��C�u@����ȡAnd so, this thing that is a real headache to so many parents��`�ʡā`out there today, that our children take so long to become fully��XC�u��;L�ġ��formed, that might actually be a huge key to our success.�� C�u��lԠ����Reorganised minds and longer childhoods,�� ������ �our brains and bodies had evolved.�� C�u����ǡ��At last, we were Homo sapiens who physically looked like us.���C�u���������What you might call, Sapiens 2.0.��(C�u@����š��It was some of these anatomically modern Homo sapiens that�� 蠲��� �began to step out into the wider world.�� �C�u��������But beyond Africa was already home to other humans.��@C�u��5��¡��Neanderthals had spread across Central Asia and Europe.�� �C�u��P��¡��Other parts of Asia were populated by multiple species,���������including Homo erectus.���C�u���̠����And there is evidence in the Middle East���������of an early group of Homo sapiens...�� �C�u���|�ȡ..who followed in the footsteps of these other human species.��PC�u@��ݔ�ơ��I do love thinking about those huge moments in our history,�������like when Homo sapiens first left Africa.�� �C�u���T�����It was a massive achievement, even though�� ����� they would've had no idea of the significance of it.��hC�u@�� ܠϡɁAnd it's amazing to think that it happened so early on in our story.���͡ǁBut it's in the Levant that I think things get really interesting.���C�u@�� Ht�š��Evidence has been uncovered of a community of Homo sapiens���������living in caves, in what is now Israel.�� �C�u�� {������And it's in this place they would��h�����hhave encountered something unexpected.�� C�u@�� �d�ġ��There is one mountain called Mount Carmel where one cave,��࠺����called Skhul, has been found with Homo sapiens.��XC�u�� ���ġ��And another cave on the same mountain, called Tabun Cave,���C�u�� � individuals.�� 𠾡��And these two peoples were living at the same time.�� C�u�� ���It is kind of wonderful to think about.�� 0C�u@��!Ġǡ��And of course, the Neanderthals were not an African species,�� p����� pthey were used to living outside of Africa,�� `C�u��!,������whereas for us, this was still very, very new.�� XC�u��!S̠����Two species sharing the same mountain.�� �������We don't know if they interacted.���C�u@��!�,�����But we do know that while Neanderthals remained�� ��̡Ɓ �in the region, all traces of this group of Homo sapiens vanished.��8C�u��!�,�����Their bloodline died out completely.�� C�u��!�Ԡơ��What is most fascinating about these Homo sapiens isn't who��C�u��!�Ԡ����they met, it isn't even what they achieved.�� ����� It's that all of these early dispersals failed.���C�u��" ��ȡWe know from genetic evidence that those Homo sapiens are not��xC�u��"��ơ��the ones who would go on to ultimately populate the planet.���C�u��"ND�ǡ��This failed migration was a stark reminder of our fragility.���C�u��"�t�ȡThese people looked like us, but there was something missing.��xC�u��"���š��Because what really defines our species isn't how we look.���C�u��"�T�����It's not even the size of our brains.�� �����hIt's something else altogether.�� 8C�u��#4�����While these early migrants vanished...��HC�u��##ܠ����..populations in Africa thrived...����ơ���..displaying that special essence that makes us who we are.��PC�u��#���̡ƁA way of thinking and behaving that would set Homo sapiens apart.���C�u��#�d�š��And some of the earliest traces of it can be found in this�� H����� Hremote cave in Botswana.�� 8C�u��$������- This is a very large natural outcrop.�� pC�u��$&$�����And as you can see, it goes on and on.��蠡����It's seven metres long.���C�u��$ mouth,���������and a natural depression for an eye.�� �C�u@��$V��ʡāAnd even if you want to go that far, a nostril up at the front.��𠸡���- Right. - With the head rearing up, it does,��C�u��$v������in modern eyes, look like a snake.�� C�u��$�������The overall form has been altered�� Р���� �to make it look even more snake-like.���C�u@��$��ɡÁThere are over 300 indentations that have been ground into the����š���surface over what is obviously an extended period of time.��C�u��$崠����When the initial excavations were conducted,�� ����� they absolutely revealed a number of questions.���C�u��% $�����One of the things found was an extremely large��`�����`number of tools that appeared to be manufactured��8C�u@��%(������and then just left there in pristine condition.�� �ȡ �- These look gorgeous. I mean, they absolutely look stunning.�� PC�u@��%>�ӡ́- Once they were manufactured, then you did one of three things with it.���������You either manufactured it perfectly and just left it.��`C�u��%a젺���- Mh-hm. - Or more interestingly, you burnt it.�� pC�u��%�������But not burnt to just, like, throwing it in a bonfire.���C�u��%�\�����It's controlled burning.���C�u@��%�\�ǡ��And the third and most bizarre thing that they did with them��Ƞ�����is they made it, manufactured it perfectly,���C�u@��%ܼ�ѡˁand when they were finished, turned it over, smashed it in the middle.��࠶����- These are offerings, aren't they? - Yeah.��pC�u@��%� �¡��The only thing that makes sense, the on... The best fit��8�����8is that they're sacrifices, they're offerings.�� C�u��&\�����They're not doing it for fun.���ɡÁ�They feel that coming up and doing this act would satisfy some��pC�u��&-��ˡŁkind of a need, some kind of, um, a wish, some kind of a desire.���C�u��&R��š��Although it's absolutely magnificent during the daytime...�� X������..it comes to life at night.�� (C�u��&�l�����- We can't speak to these people, but this...�� H������..this whole place, it gets us�� C�u@��&�t�ϡɁso much closer to what they were thinking, what was going on inside.���š��- Yeah. We had always had the impression that this type of���C�u��&̈́�͡ǁabstract thinking would've been beyond the ancestors at that time,���C�u@��&��Ρȁand now we definitely have evidence that that was absolutely wrong,��ؠȡ�that they obviously had the ability to hold abstract thought.��PC�u@��'D�����You make an offering and hope for something back.��P�ˡŁP- Asking for probably some of the things that we would ask for -�� �C�u��'"\�����food, health, children, etc, etc - and you just think,��@C�u��'7��ʡā"Oh, my gosh, that's some of the... That's some of the earliest��h�����h"behaviour that we know so well."���C�u@��'xL�á��Some believe the people who performed these rituals must�� H����� Hhave been holding abstract ideas in their heads...�� �C�u@��'�L�����..imagining things they couldn't see.�� 8�ѡˁ�A clue their minds were sparking and forming connections in a new way.���C�u��'Д�����When I see this, this is what moves me,�� ����� because this is who we are, in a way��(C�u��'�ܠ����that feels more us than bones.��0C�u��( ����� We know this behaviour. This is ritual.�� �C�u@��(1L�����Whether it is religion and spirituality, or things�� @�Сʁ @like the handshake, or birthdays, graduation ceremonies, Burning Man,���C�u��(OL�ӡ́Glastonbury, New Year's Eve, we are, as a species, obsessed with ritual.���C�u��(fD�š��It is profoundly and fundamentally Homo sapiens behaviour.��C�u��({\�����It's us. We know it.�� `C�u��(���¡��It was as if they were able to see beyond the tangible.��XC�u��(�T�ġ��They were thinking beyond what was just in front of them.���C�u��(�T�ġ��They were venturing into the unknown and into the unseen.���C�u��) �ʡāBehaviour like this marked a new chapter in our species' story.��hC�u��)*4�ʡāOur minds were awakening, opening up to a world of possibility.��C�u��)Z,�����This wasn't confined to ritual.�������� �It touched every part of our lives.�� �C�u��)�$�����Around 70,000 years ago,�� ������ �new weapons began appearing across Southern Africa.��8C�u��)�$�����Homo sapiens were using abstract thought to innovate.��C�u��*\�ȡInventing complex projectile weapons, like the bow and arrow.��C�u��*7��ˡŁWe were seeing the world not just as it was, but as it could be.��8C�u@��*QԠ¡��It takes a lot to see the potential in a piece of wood.���¡��Projectile weapons were revolutionary technology for us��@C�u@��*p$�ġ��humans, because up until now, we'd been using close-range�� �ơ�� hunting strategies, which were less effective, less lethal,��XC�u��*���ġ��and yet more dangerous for the person holding the weapon.�� 0C�u��*���ɡÁFor over two million years, early humans mostly relied on axes��C�u��*Ĭ�����and spears.��(C�u��*� �����But Homo sapiens imagined unseen forces like the power���������held in wood and string.�� �C�u��+������Creating something entirely new.�� (C�u@��+2������If you look at this bow and arrow, you can�� ����� see how much knowledge is required.���ʡāYou need to know where to get the wood for the bow, you need to���C�u@��+U4�ϡɁknow about the glue, you need to know how taut the string should be.���������So many elements that require, not just knowledge,�� �C�u@��+p������but the ability to pass that knowledge on.�� 8�ȡ 8Something like this is not the result of one person's genius.��xC�u��+�d�ǡ��It's the result of many, many people, over many generations,���C�u��+������inventing, reinventing, perfecting, tinkering.���C�u��+�,�����We weren't just inventing.��@����� �We were adapting and expanding our knowledge.�� hC�u��+�t�����Human culture was becoming more complex,�� ������ �that technology was exploding.�� C�u@��, result of something called�� Ƞ͡ǁ �cumulative culture, the idea that you accumulate culture, so every���C�u��,,Ԡӡ́generation builds upon the previous generation's science and technology.���C�u��,W|�����With cumulative culture, Homo sapiens were becoming�� 0����� 0collectively smarter with every generation.�� pC�u��,}��СʁAnd as our numbers increased, this was more powerful than any weapon.���C�u��,�\�¡��A giant leap towards becoming the species we are today.���C�u��,⌠����When was our species truly born?�� �C�u��,�������Was it when we first appeared?���C�u��- Ԡ����Or when we started to look like modern humans?�� C�u��-4�����Or was it when our minds lit up?���������Creating, inventing, and building on our knowledge.��C�u��-k�����Each was a crucial step in our evolution.�� C�u��-���š��But none would be possible without one special ingredient.���C�u��-�������The glue that binds all of our achievements together.��C�u��-�������It leaves no direct fossil evidence,�� @�¡�� @but we can find traces of it in some unexpected places.��@C�u��.��š��In archaeology, sometimes the smallest finds actually tell��XC�u��.�����the grandest of stories.�� 0����� 0These are tiny marine shells,���C�u@��.=�ɡÁand shells like this have been found in caves in South Africa,�� ��ǡ�� �and they are just too small to have been collected for meat.���C�u��.\4�ԡIf you look really closely, what you see is that they have holes in them.�� C�u@��.sT�̡ƁNow, some of these were collected because they already had holes,�� ����� but others were perforated by Homo sapiens.���C�u��.� �ӡ́And really close examination of the shells in these caves show that they��HC�u��.�T�ϡɁhad wear marks on them consistent with having been worn on the body.��XC�u��/,T�ΡȁSo, that, along with these holes in them, well, it's really easy to���C�u��/AD�����paint a picture of them having been strung...��`C�u��/\$�����..and turned into jewellery.���C�u��/�������These weren't just beads, they were emblems.�� X������Symbols of value and meaning...���C�u��/�䠮���..shared and understood by everyone.�� XC�u@��/� them,����š���and it's always the same-coloured pigment, it's red ochre.���C�u��0ܠ͡ǁEven though ochre comes in yellow, black and red, it's always red.���C�u@��0+,�����Perhaps you were trading them for food, for goods,�� �ǡ�� perhaps you'd give them as some kind of a gift at a wedding,��C�u@��0K\�����perhaps they were just a sign of friendliness.�� h�š�� hAnd you can also imagine that people would be wearing them�� xC�u��0a perhaps be a sign of prestige.���C�u@��0�̠����The making and sharing of these beads was one more�� ������ �sign our species had made another revolutionary leap.��C�u��0�4�����The ability to pass on knowledge and technology,�� ������ �sharing rituals and traditions.�� �C�u��0ᄠ����All these things suggest Homo sapiens were passing��(�����(sophisticated ideas from one mind to another.��hC�u��1�¡��Our species had unlocked the power of complex language.��pC�u@��1) shells is that they����ɡÁ�have been found not just in South Africa, but all over Africa,���C�u@��1KĠ̡Ɓfrom the south, all the way to the north, in Morocco and Algeria.��8�����8Not just along the coasts, but all the way inland.��8C�u��1w������And that, for me, is so exciting,���C�u��1�������because when you look at this,�� ����� you might think, "Oh, my God, isn't that amazing?�� 0C�u��1�젵���"Humans have a kind of cultural expression�� 𠧡�� �"that they never had before."���C�u��1�$�����While earlier humans probably had basic language...��C�u��1�\�¡��..it's thought Homo sapiens were speaking to each other�� Р���� �in a more complex way.��XC�u��2 �����Weaving a shared culture.���������And forging an invisible bond that united our species���C�u��24�����across the entire continent.�� PC�u��2TĠ����All over Africa, we understood the cultural symbolism��xC�u��2n is important, not that shell.���C�u��2�ܠ����"Red is important, not the other colours."�� Р���� �We had an understanding that wasn't just you, me,��PC�u@��2���ơ��and our three families, you, me, and the village next-door.��`�����`We had a kind of symbolism and understanding�� XC�u��2�������and interconnectedness that was continent-wide.��pC�u��2Մ�����This has never happened before.���������For me, this is the birth of our species.��hC�u��3������Our species' birth wasn't a single moment.�� ������ �It unfolded over millennia.�� �C�u��33��ʡāComplex language and our powerful shared culture finally set us���������apart from humans before us.�� �C�u��3_������We had become one connected, cooperative species.���C�u��3~�����We had become Homo sapiens...�� ؠ�����..the ancestors of us all.���C�u��3� �����Sometimes in life, things come together,�� ������ �and this was a coming together for our species.�� �C�u��3۴�����It was a perfect storm.�� h�ʡā hYou had a change in brain, you had language, increased numbers,��C�u@�3�$�ȡincreased connectivity, cumulative culture, better technology��8�����8and weaponry, and the right climate.�� �C�u��4D�����But through all of this, there is a hidden thread.���C�u��4'��ʡāOur secret weapon is that we are a social, cooperative species.��HC�u��4? superpower.��(�����(We are more than the sum of our parts.��0C�u��4_������Whether it's ritual, technology, language,�� H����� Hall of it comes down to cooperation, in my opinion.���C�u��4}��ȡAnd that's how you go from a species that started off feebly,���C�u��4�������unremarkably, to one that would��𠢡���become so extraordinary,�� �C�u��4�\�����one ready to explore this planet.�� (C�u@��5�¡��..we follow our ancestors as they spread beyond Africa,���á��taking on extreme environments no others could master...���C�u��5GL�����..travelling beyond the realm of another extraordinary�� 0����� 0species of human - the Hobbit.��xC�u��5g̠ǡ��And eventually, even reaching the distant land of Australia.��C�u��6^������Over 300,000 years ago,�� ����� Africa was the cradle of humanity -���C�u��6|p�����the place where humans evolved,�� ������ �including the first of a new species...�� �C�u��6�ࠛ���..Homo sapiens...��@����� �..our species.���C�u@��6�������From humble beginnings, our growing culture����ȡ�and connections helped us spread across that great continent.��8C�u��6�@�����And then we ventured outwards,�� @����� @away from our home, and into the wider world.���C�u��7UȠġ��Our ancestors did something which is actually remarkable.���������From a beach not unlike this one,���C�u��7vH�����possibly quite close by,�� ������ �they ventured out into an open ocean,�� C�u��7������with only an empty horizon in front of them.��C�u@��7�0�����And after many days and nights on the water,�� �Ρȁ �they eventually came upon this new landmass that they would settle.��xC�u��7�������We call that landmass Australia.�� ������ �It was a pivotal moment in the history of our species.��hC�u��7������But in so many ways, it's not actually the destination��Ƞ�����that's important.���C�u@��7�p�����It is everything it took -��H�����Hall the challenges they had to overcome�� x�á���to make it so far away from where they began, in Africa.��0C�u��8*蠸���We were not the first humans to leave Africa.�� �C�u��8>蠡���Long before we evolved,��Р�����the ancestors of our cousins,��0�����the Neanderthals, set out.���C�u��8Z࠼���And Homo erectus, one of the most ancient humans,��@�����@had made it deep into Asia.�� �C�u��8�������But none had ever made the voyage to Australia.���C�u@��8�ȠԡEvery other species of human reached a point, and then they just stopped.����͡ǁ�They faced a barrier that they either could not or would not pass.���C�u��8������But not us.�� P����� PThis is the story of how, time and again,�� �C�u��8�0�����we took on perilous journeys -�� (����� (how the last species of human to evolve�� �C�u��8�ؠ����took on environments like no others had,�� ������ �to become the only global species of human.��C�u��9������That title is ours and ours alone.���C�u��9Z������This story begins over 120,000 years ago.��XC�u@��9pؠ����As our species spreads beyond the borders of Africa...��ؠ�����..they're blocked by expanses of oceans on most sides.���C�u��9�������One of the few places they can go is east -��Р�����to the vast landmass that today is made up of�� XC�u��9�������Arabia and the Levant...��XC�u��9�@�����..at this time one of the few gateways out of Africa��X�����Xto the rest of the world.��0C�u��:�������Of all the species of human that have ever existed,��Ƞ�����I think we, Homo sapiens,�� �C�u��:������are the explorer species.��H�����HWe can't help it - we have to wander.�� XC�u��:���It is in our wont to travel.�� ؠ�����And this place was the landmass next door.�� C�u��;H�����You could see it from Africa.�� ������ �And look at it! It is absolutely breathtaking.��`C�u��;6p�����But it's not exactly welcoming.��X�����XNothing about this place says home.�� pC�u��;T������And so, the question is,�������why did Homo sapiens come here?�� �C�u��;z@�����We know they did,��蠸����thanks to finds from Israel and Saudi Arabia,��@C�u��;�h�����to the Gulf States.��hC�u��;������And even beyond - to the fringes of Europe and Asia.���C�u��;�ࠣ���Which is hard to explain,����Ρȁ�when today these lands look just as much of a barrier as any ocean.��C�u@��;���¡��I always say archaeology is a bit like a jigsaw puzzle,����ǡ���and you're just constantly looking for pieces of that puzzle�� �C�u�� you an idea���C�u@�� been,���������because it's bigger than a brick. It's...��p�����0I mean, it's practically the size of my head.��pC�u�� elephant,�� x����� xand it was found in Jordan.�� �C�u�� ������ �from the Saudi desert.��p�����Now, hippos and elephants��8C�u�� of water,��ؠ�����and they need greenery.�� `C�u�� fossils.�������They tell us about what a landscape used to look like.���C�u�� Arabia.�� �C�u��=6x�����One that, if you know where to look,�� ������ �you can see hints of to this day.�� 8C�u��=`��¡��If you look over there, it almost looks like a mirage -�� p����� pthat white and silver on the landscape.�� �C�u��=y�����So that used to be a lake,�������and the white and silver is actually salt and gypsum�� �C�u@��=�ؠ����that was left behind when the water evaporated.�� ��ȡ�And scientists are really interested in not just ageing them,���C�u��=�������but also working out these ancient water systems -�� Р���� �these extinct water systems.���C�u@��=�p�ϡɁAnd so one of the ways they do this is by just getting on the ground����ɡÁ�and walking these beautiful but incredibly intense landscapes,��`C�u��=�X�����looking at maps, looking at satellite images.�� ������ �And this is the result of some of that work.�� C�u��> H�����Now, if you look here,��X�����Xthis is a map of the region�� �C�u@��>������just slightly north of here.��ؠ�����So this is Saudi, which is to our east,��X����� 0and that there is the Sinai of Egypt.�� �C�u��>5P�����You can see it's basically shades of beige and grey.��XC�u��>J������Now, look!��࠭����So this is about 125,000 years ago.��xC�u��>e蠧���Water litters this landscape.�� ࠾��� �I mean, you can see the veins just running through.���C�u@��>�h�����There is no way that this land�� ������ �would not have been green.����ȡ�There are paleo lakes and paleo rivers absolutely everywhere.���C�u��>�H�����And this is this region as we have never known it.��C�u��>Р�����Now, remember, this was a world without borders,�������and this was a land of plenty,�� HC�u��>�蠜���within easy reach.��p�����pAnd so why wouldn't Homo sapiens have come here?�� �C�u@��?*𠤡��But what they didn't know,�������what they couldn't have known,��H�����`is that this region would be a trap.�� �C�u��?e`�����The green days of Arabia were numbered.�� 𠦡��The desert was on the march.�� C�u��?�������Subtle variations in the orbit of the Earth�� Р���� �caused the climate to change.�� C�u��?��ǡ��Within as little as a few hundred years, the rains vanished,��@C�u��?�H�����starving this entire region of water...�� Ƞ���� ..leaving humans at the mercy of the desert.���C�u@��@ ؠơ��If you set out to create an environment that was completely�� (����� (and utterly hostile to our biology,��蠢���you'd come up with this.���C�u@��@%h�����The heat is such a presence�� ����� that I can feel it on my back.��H�����hThe sun, even at this time of the morning,�� PC�u��@@ �����feels like it's borderline torture.�� ������And there is no water.�� �C�u��@[������As far as the eye can see, there's nothing.���������And back then, it would've been so much worse.�� �C�u@��@v������It wasn't arid.��x�����xIt's what we call hyper arid.�� ��ġ��It's thought that there was no rainfall for years on end.��C�u��@������And so we go from seeing multiple sites�� H����� Hwhere humans lived in this region, to nothing.���C�u@��@�Ƞ����We seem to vanish for thousands of years.�� �ǡ���And this could so easily have been the end of our journey...��@C�u��@�蠩���..defeated by the harsh desert.�� �C�u��A(�����We think that some Homo sapiens�� ������ �clung on in pockets that we call refugia.�� �C�u��A=h�����Those are refuges where the climate is milder.��ؠ�����But from all we can tell,��XC�u��AS������they would've been few and far between,�� x����� xand they effectively faded away.�� C�u��Am`�����And so, for all intents and purposes,���������Homo sapiens outside of Africa had failed.���C�u@��A�h�����And what's interesting is��Р�����other species of human had cracked�� ������the code of living outside of Africa, but not us.��@C�u��A�x�����And so how did this happen?�� ������ �People like me, so many of you,�� �C�u��Aĸ�����how did we become the only species of human�������who exists across the globe?�� hC�u��A�ؠ����These brutal conditions�� ����� persisted for years on end.�� C�u��B,(�ǡ��Until finally, there was another subtle change in climate...���C�u��BNؠ����..allowing conditions to become less extreme...�� 0C�u��BwȠ����..and giving Homo sapiens another chance.��C�u��B�p�����Occasional seasonal rains returned...�� �C�u��B���ġ��..just enough to bring precious water back to the desert.��8C�u��C������Now, the conditions here did get better.���������So, yes, you had desert and sand dunes...�� C�u��C������..but you also had lakes and rivers.�� ��š���And that resulted in us being able to exist in this place,��pC�u��CF������but not just exist here.�� ����� From an oasis here to a river and spring system there,���C�u��C`������we were able to actually leave the Arabian Peninsula��ࠩ����and face the rest of the world.�� C�u��C�`�ɡÁAs they did, these new waves likely absorbed any small pockets���������of Homo sapiens that had held on.�� �C�u��C�0�����And now scientists studying the genetic code�� ������ �of people alive today believe this moment��0C�u��C������was a pivotal point in our history.�� �C�u@��D࠺���Our DNA has the power to tell stories about us,���������but some of them aren't just stories, they're sagas,�� C�u��D!h�����and they're extraordinary.���������And one of them is that every single one of us��C�u��D9�����whose origins are from outside of Africa�� ����� comes from a tiny population of Homo sapiens.�� �C�u��D[��СʁWe started in Africa, from multiple populations across the continent,���C�u��Dr0�����but then only a small group of us left -��h�����hperhaps as few as 10,000 individuals.��hC�u��D�8�����And so all of us from outside of Africa���������come from this minuscule population,�� �C�u��D�P�����who went on to populate���������not one, not two continents, but five.�� �C�u��D������But our journey through the desert...�� ������..was only one of a multitude of challenges��`C�u��E蠡���Homo sapiens would face�� ����� as we spread across the globe.�� �C�u��E6 �����And because we were so few in number,�� ������ �our very survival outside of Africa��`C�u��EQx�����was far from certain.�� 8C�u��E�ؠ����As this tiny population grew and spread...�� �C�u��E�������..they would crash into another extreme environment.��PC�u��E������One that had defeated all other species of human -��hC�u��E�p�����a vast green wall.�� �C�u��F������Once beyond the desert,���ѡˁour species found themselves in the giant landmass of Europe and Asia.��XC�u��F Р����To their north, lay high, cold mountains.���������So many spread eastwards and south,�� �C�u��F>X�����down through what is now the Indian subcontinent,���������reaching modern-day Sri Lanka,�� �C�u��FV������at that time joined to the mainland�� ������ �by lower sea levels...��C�u��F�P�����..and dominated by expansive dense rainforests.���C�u@��F���ʡāAnd while this may look so much more welcoming than the desert,��8�����8nothing could be further from the truth.�� �C�u��F�@�����These leeches are absolutely everywhere.�� �¡�� �And when I say everywhere, I mean, one has just got me.��PC�u��Gx�����And there are creepy crawlies absolutely everywhere,�������including in our trousers.���C�u��G)X�����And they are actually quite irritating.�� �����xThis place is also full of mosquitoes.�� �C�u��GB������We saw a viper, and a cobra.���������And that's the thing about this place.��pC�u@��GZ������It is difficult to exist in.���������It's hot, it's humid, it's oppressive,�� ������Hand you have to constantly have your wits about you.�� xC�u��G���ơ��This is one of the most extreme environments on the planet.���C�u��G�������So much of what grows here is poisonous to eat...�� �C�u��Gʘ�����..and there are few large animals to provide meat.�� �������Conditions so difficult�� �C�u@��G�P�����that, as far as we can tell,��0�����0no other species of human���������ever made it past the fringes of these rainforests.���C�u@��H�������Being here is a bit like stepping back in time,�� Ƞ���� �because about 50,000 years ago,��������this place would have basically looked the same.�� C�u��H�������This huge cave mouth would've been here.���������Only back then, the rainforest would've been unbroken,���C�u@��H�������and it would've gone on for kilometres�� ������ �in every single direction.�� `������And yet, somehow, in this cave�� �C�u��H�@�����and two other caves not far away,�� ����� we have found evidence of our ancestors living here,���C�u��H������all the way back then,���á��in the heart of what would've been a massive rainforest.���C�u��I'X�ΡȁSo how were Homo sapiens able to plunge into a place no others had?���C�u��IE�����How did they find food - particularly meat?�� C�u@��IZ �á��They did have the advantage of bow-and-arrow technology,�� ����� which had arisen thousands of years earlier.�� hC�u��I(�����But heavy, stone-tipped arrows�� 8�͡ǁ 8were less suited to firing into the high canopy of the rainforest.���C�u��I���ΡȁTheir solution was uncovered thanks to over 30 years of excavations���C�u��I���š��deep into the floor of this - and the two other two caves.���C�u��I�(�����Digs that reach all the way back�� Ƞ���� �to 48,000 years ago,�� �C�u��I�Р����when the pioneers of our species�� �ɡÁ �first attempted to overcome the challenges of this rainforest.���C�u��JP�����Starting with one of the most difficult -�� H����� Hhow to find enough meat to sustain them.�� @C�u��Ji8�����Yeah. So, this here, that's where somebody is cutting?��`�����`- Yeah, yeah.��(C�u��J������- Yeah.��P�����0Yeah. It's funny, because I think butchery marks,�� (C�u@��J�X�ϡɁoften need to look at it through a magnifying glass, but not always.�� P����� PAnd actually, this one is quite clear.��Р���� And this is not the kind of thing that you would see�� �C�u��J�p�����if an animal killed it.�������This is an indication that this is killed by a human.���C�u��J�ؠ����And so the question is how they killed them.��C�u��L�����Right.�������� �So, that chip mark there...��pC�u@�L0�����..shows us that it was actually used. - Yes.�� H����� H- I mean, it's amazing, because this is obviously...���C�u@��L.������I've got in my hands right now���������something that was used 48,000 years ago.���ɡÁx- Of course, of course. - And it was absolutely revolutionary.�� �C�u��LU@�ơ��These bone points are only the tips of the full arrowheads.��hC�u@��Lm𠹡��Many are chipped from actually hitting prey...�� ��֡Ё�..and each one would have been attached to the end of a long wooden arrow.��C�u��L�������These hunters didn't invent a brand-new technology...�� �C�u��L�������..they adapted an old one.��H������These are some of the earliest examples of bow�� �C�u��L�ؠ����and arrows found outside of Africa...�� �C�u��L�H�����..enabling Homo sapiens to hunt����á���with exceptional skill and efficiency within the forest.��HC�u��Ma�����But we know that the humans living here�� 8����� 8were doing more than just surviving.�� C�u��M��š��Oshan and the team also found beads fashioned from shells.���C�u��M���̡ƁPerhaps brought in through trade from groups living on the coast.�� �C�u��M�������A constant struggle to survive...��������8..doesn't leave much time for making works of art..�� �C�u��N`�ѡˁ..suggesting a long-established and successful community existed here.���C�u@��NJX�����And for that, to turn this place into a true home���������would take something fundamental to our species.���C�u��N�������This is...�� ������ �..a replica...��C�u��N�������..of a tool that was found in the caves�� ࠻��� �in this area, dated from about 40,000 years ago.�� �C�u��N���ѡˁIt is a monkey tooth, specifically a canine, but that's been modified.���C�u��N�(�����If you look here, it's been cut into,�� @����� @to create a much sharper point.��pC�u��N�������And the reason for that...��Ƞ���� �..is that it's a tool used for puncturing.���C�u��OX�����Oh.���������It's not easy.��xC�u��OȠ����All right, look, I've finally managed to make a hole.���C�u@��O78�¡��And once you make a hole, you can then use plant fibre,����á���animal sinew, as a string, start stringing animal skins,��(C�u��O]�����animal hide together, and create clothes.�������� HBut actually, in so many ways,�� �C�u@��Ot�����that's not the most interesting thing about this tool.�� ��ˡŁ@Because for me, the most interesting thing is what this tells us��C�u��O�@�����about the minds of the people who have made it.�� ������ �Because you have to be taught how to use it.�� xC�u��O�H�����You have to be taught how to make it.�� (������So it actually tells us something much deeper.�� �C�u��O������Throughout the years humans made this cave their home,�������countless elder generations���C�u��O������would have taught children these techniques.�� �C�u��P `�����Something we still do to this day.��H�ȡ �A communal passing on of knowledge that is key to our ability�� C�u��P)h�����to master so many different environments.�� �C�u��PX �����That engagement, constant engagement,�� @����� @turns every generation of children�� XC�u@��Po������into a step in the evolution of knowledge.�� �ǡ�� And for us Homo sapiens, that's probably what adaptation is,��HC�u��P������the evolution of knowledge,�� `�ˡŁ `because it's what turns a simple projectile like a bow and arrow��@C�u��P���ϡɁinto a weapon fine-tuned, honed, and specialised for the rainforest.���C�u��P���á��And that constant innovation unlocks resources that were��HC�u��P�ؠ����completely out of reach to other species of human.��������Resources like the rainforest.��0C�u@��Q#࠳���And it's this ongoing evolution of tools�� ��ǡ�� �and techniques that has allowed our species, time and again,���C�u��QI�����to live and thrive even in extreme environments.��xC�u��Qq������That is the strength of our species,�� ؠ���� �that we were opening up so many new environments,�� @C�u��Q���ġ��places that previously other species saw as impenetrable,���C�u��Q�h�¡��as too difficult, we saw as having long-term potential,��Р�����and we were able to expand in number,�� (C�u��Q�`�����we were able to then adapt to it.�� ������ �And as we grew, some people would decide to move on���C�u��QҸ�����to yet another environment.�� x�¡�� xWe were becoming a species with truly global potential.���C�u@��R (�ȡIt was that ability to take on so many different, challenging����ǡ���environments that carried us through so much of the world...���C�u��R70�����..by now, to the fringes of Europe...���������..into the cold expanses of northern Asia...�� PC�u��R` �š��..and, within only a few thousand years of leaving Africa,���������deep into Southeast Asia.���C�u��R��ɡÁLower sea levels had created a single region known as Sunda...��(C�u��R�h�ɡÁ..where today there are sweeping stretches of tropical waters.���C�u��R�8�����Our wandering feet brought us to its outer edge.�� �C�u��R�蠽���Beyond lay an ocean, dotted with isolated islands.��HC�u��S��ġ��There are these places that you turn up to and you think,�� @����� @"I'm on the edge of the world."�� �C�u��S.`�����They are incredibly remote and isolated,�� ������ �and this is one of those places.�� `C�u@��SD@�����And it's been like this since the very beginning,���������since its formation,��(����� �because it's been surrounded by this very deep sea,�� �C�u@��S^�����which makes what was found here even more intriguing,���ǡ���because a mind-boggling, completely unexpected human history��hC�u��SP�����plays out here over hundreds of thousands of years.�� �C�u��S�������Even all those years ago,��Р�����the ocean could not stop the spread of our species.�� C�u@��SȘ�ȡWe reached these remote islands, thanks to a technology that,��ؠá���as far as we can tell, we are the only humans to master.�� C�u@��S�(�����This is a tuna fish bone.���������This particular one happens to be quite fresh.��p�����It's a few days old.���C�u@��T�ϡɁBut we have actually found tuna fish bones on an archaeological site�������on these islands that dates back to over 40,000 years.��xC�u��T4��ˡŁBut tuna swim in open waters, and that means that our ancestors,���C�u@��TQx�ˡŁover 40,000 years ago, they were fashioning some kind of vessel,��Ƞ�����and going out into the open waters,�� �C�u��Tl0�����and coming back again, and again, and again.�� �C�u@��T������We can't be sure what form these vessels took,�� P����� Psince no evidence survives,�� �ȡ`but they were probably simple rafts made from available wood.�� C�u��T�(�����And they did more than just help us fish.�� �C�u@��T�ؠ����There is a very interesting archaeological site�� 8�š�� 8on one of the neighbouring islands that has this one layer�� �C�u��T㸠ȡthat is just filled with artefacts belonging to Homo sapiens.�������But the layer just before it,�� C�u@��T�Рѡˁimmediately preceding it, is empty and barren of those same artefacts.���ʡāSo it almost suggests that our ancestors just kind of turned up�� �C�u@��U��ϡɁovernight and spread rapidly through these islands in large numbers,����ˡŁ�just because of the sheer volume of artefacts within that layer.�� �C�u��UC������And none of that would really be possible�� ������ �unless you were skilled enough to build robust craft,�� �C�u��UZx�¡��you were skilled enough to navigate treacherous waters.��8C�u��Uz��ҡ́But in a truly surprising twist, we were not the first to reach Flores.�� C�u��U�������Somehow, someone made it here before us.�� @C�u��U�(�š��Sometimes in this job, you get to fulfil a lifelong dream,�������and one of them is about to happen.�� �C�u@��U��¡��See, there's this cave in palaeoanthropology that isn't�� 0����� 0just fascinating, it's basically explosive.�� HC�u��U�`�����It started in 1950,��@�����@with this one priest called Father Theodor Verhoeven.���C�u@��V@�����Now, back in the day, it was actually quite common����ơ���for priests and missionaries to also dabble in archaeology,�� XC�u��V0�ɡÁso he was out here on Flores looking for archaeological sites.�� ������ �And in talking to locals,��@C�u@��V)�����he got told about this one cave that had potential.�� X�ɡÁ XHe turned up, it was actually being used as an amateur school,���C�u��VE�ȡbut just below the surface, he did actually find archaeology.��0C�u@��V[0�ġ��Actually, it was stone tools belonging to ancient humans.����á���Now, that in of itself is huge, it's really significant,��xC�u��V}h�ȡbut it would take another half a century before we understood��P�����Pjust how important this cave was.�� �C�u@��V֠�¡��For over 20 years, a joint Indonesian and international�� h�¡�� hteam of archaeologists has been excavating these caves.���C�u��V� �����They had been searching for evidence of the spread�� ����� of Homo sapiens through the islands.��HC�u@��W������Instead, they found something completely unexpected...�� ������..a strange skeleton from at least 70,000 years ago.���C�u��W5P�á��So long before our species reached this far from Africa.���C�u��WQ �����I think the first thing obviously that strikes you�� ����� when you see her is that she's very short.�� C�u��Wk������Um, what are we talking, one metre?��XC�u��W�࠹���Right, so about three and a half feet? - Yeah.�� C�u��Wو�����- It's got wisdom teeth. - Yes.����ȡ�- Yeah. I mean, the molars are... The adult molars are there.�� (C�u��W�Ƞ����Yeah, yeah, yeah.���������As soon as you look closely, this is 100% an adult.�� ࠗ����- Yeah. Yeah.��PC�u��Xؠ����- An adult, but the size of a child.��`�����`And that was only the first surprise.���C�u��X=�����The legs, they're quite short. - Yeah.�� �C�u��X^Р����- Whereas, with us...������� xOur legs are really long...��������8..compared to arms.���C�u��Xx������Yeah.������� PYup.��PC�u��X�X�����Which is huge... - Is huge, yes.�������- ..because on me that would be about that length.�� �C�u@��X��ˡŁI mean, this is one of those moments in the history of the field�� Ƞ���� �where I just wish I had been there.�� �C�u��YРɡÁI know she's a replica, but she's a replica of the real thing,�� ������ �and, yeah, it's...��8C�u��Y������It's giving me goose bumps.��PC�u��Y?Р����This new species of human was a revelation.�� @�����HNamed Homo floresiensis, after the island,�� hC�u@��Y]��ȡthey quickly became known to many as "the hobbits," after the����̡Ɓ�heroes from the Lord of the Rings, who were also small as adults.��`C�u@��Y�(�š��It's likely they arrived entirely by chance. Perhaps a few��8�ϡɁ8individuals swept here on driftwood from the islands to the north...��C�u��Y�H�����..more than 700,000 years ago.�� C�u@��Y������Eventually becoming a unique species,�� ؠˡŁ �seemingly with a mix of modern and more ancient characteristics.��@C�u��Z蠸���Now, we can see obviously the brain is small,�� ������ �but how small are we talking?���C�u��Z;8�����That... - That's right. - How incredible.�� �C�u��ZR������Such a small brain, and yet they had stone tools.���C�u��Zq��ϡɁBefore this, scientists assumed that a human with such a small brain��C�u��Z�������could never have developed such tools.��H������One theory is that they were initially a much larger�� hC�u@��Z��á��species, before the long isolation on Flores caused them�� ������ �to shrink, a process known as island dwarfism,��xC�u@��Z�P�¡��where large animals get smaller due to fewer resources.��p�ġ��pAt the same time, some small animals actually get bigger,���C�u��Z츠����due to a lack of predators.���C�u@��[;x�ơ��So Stegodons generally are not the size of water buffaloes.�� ������- Exactly, yeah. - But on this island...���C�u@��[S�͡ǁ- It's big one. - ..they're the size of a water buffalo. - Yeah.��H�ΡȁH- And then on this island, you've got humans that are a metre tall.�� �����H- Yeah, that small.���C�u��[j��ġ��- What you're describing there is a species that has been���������shaped by this island, has been���C�u��[��̡Ɓshaped by the environment on this island, and the result is this.���C�u��[�x�����Long isolation allowed evolution to tailor the hobbit��ࠞ����to this environment.���C�u��[� �����Their long arms, compared to short legs,�� (����� (a response to perhaps the steep terrain,�� XC�u��[ࠠá��or the lack of predators on the island to run away from.�� �C�u@��[��ʡāPhysical adaptations that, along with those simple stone tools,����ǡ���helped them survive here for hundreds of thousands of years.��hC�u��\AX�����You can see, it's like layers of cake. - Yes.�� P����� P- So every period has left a layer.���C�u��\Xx�����So this is like a snapshot in time, telling us�� @����� @a lot about different periods.�� �C�u��\�(�����That's basically flow from volcanic eruption?�� ������ �- Yeah.��C�u��\�P�����- Mm-hm.��`C�u��\�(�����Right.���C�u��]h�����Right.���C�u��]4P�����So Homo sapiens.���C�u@��]aP�����That's really significant.�������So the pyroclastic flow is when you have the gas��蠼��� �and material that comes from a volcanic eruption,��pC�u��]w��ġ��and really, I mean, that would just be quite destructive.�� ����� - Yeah.���C�u��]������- We don't think that that final eruption alone caused�� ������ �the extinction of the hobbits.�� C�u@��]Ѩ�ġ��It would have been a catastrophic event here at the cave,�� H�ġ�� Hbut we don't know how it affected the rest of the island.�� C�u��]�0�ʡāWhat we do know is that this shows the time of the hobbits here�� H����� Hwas coming to an end.�� C�u@��^�̡ƁSo you're looking at actually quite a different world down there,�� @����� @to up there. Yeah. - Exactly, yes, exactly.��HC�u��^h��ġ��- This tiny island has been home to two species of human.�� �C�u��^�ؠ����One remains to this day.��@����� �One vanished long ago.��C�u��^��ҡ́It is wonderful to imagine what this place was like before all of this.��pC�u@��^������Thousands of years before our ancestors, you had these���ʡā�miniature elephant-like creatures who wandered open grasslands.���C�u��_p�ǡ��You had actual dragons, the Komodo dragons, who still exist.���C�u��_-�ȡAnd then giant marabou storks - storks that were carnivorous,���C�u��_B������that were my height or taller, and could fly.�� ������ �It was like a fantasy island.��pC�u��_W������And amongst all of it,��ȠΡȁ�there were these humans who were tiny, who came up to about my hip.���C�u@��_}�ǡ��And those hobbits lived here on this island for a staggering�� ��á�� �length of time, potentially for more than 700,000 years,���C�u��_�������longer than we've existed as a species.�� �C�u@��_�`�����And yet, there is this twist, because so far,�� ������ �we have found no evidence of them past these shores.���C�u��_� �š��Their whole story plays out only on this island of Flores.���C�u@��_�`�����Our own species, in just a fraction of that time,�� Р���� �was able to spread across a huge portion of the globe.��pC�u��`?��͡ǁAround 50,000 years ago, the climate here became warmer and drier,��H�����Hchanging the environment.��pC�u��`d��ʡāAt the same time, those violent volcanic eruptions also struck.���C�u��`���ɡÁWhatever the reason, it meant that Homo floresiensis faced not��P�����Pjust change, but rapid change.�� �C�u@��`�@�ȡThat meant that their physiology, their physical adaptations,��8�����8that for so long had been a benefit, were now a trap.��pC�u@��`��ȡThey were being left behind, because it's actually incredibly�� p�ǡ�� pdifficult to rapidly evolve your way out of a sudden crisis.��(C�u@��`���ǡ��And they couldn't behaviourally adapt to this change either.����¡���Nor could they, say, escape and move to another island.�� �C�u��a�СʁAnd so these wonderful, fantastic relatives of ours vanished forever.��0C�u��a3 �ɡÁAnd in their place, Homo sapiens appeared, making this island,�������like so many places, their home.�� hC�u��aq�ˡŁSo far, we've found no evidence that our two species overlapped.���C�u��a���ġ��But for many, the final factor in the hobbit's extinction��8�����8is likely our sudden arrival.���C�u��a� �����The hobbit simply couldn't compete��X�����Xwith this highly adaptable newcomer...���C�u��a�P�����..a species able to change its behaviour�� ������ �to suit almost any environment and condition.�� �C�u��b��ӡ́The very characteristics driving our continuing spread across the globe.��C�u@��bG������As we spread further and further away from Africa,�� 𠮡�� �entering into brand-new environments��0����� that we had never experienced before,�� C�u��bf𠴡��we're not just surviving in these places,��𠬡���we're actually setting down roots.�� �C�u��b�ؠ����And roots that would last us till this very day.�� �C�u��b�������There was one last part of this journey to go.�� C�u��b�8�ǡ��We set out on a path no other human species had travelled...���C�u��b���..perhaps following tantalising hints��p�����pthat there was more land to explore.���C�u��cȠ����Clouds on the horizon, returning flights of birds...���C�u@��c, �ġ��..or maybe something much more instinctive that inspired,����ơ���we think, dozens of families to strike out on a voyage that��C�u��c[𠰡��would carry them to a new continent...��������p..Australia.��`C�u��c�P�ġ��Now, these were people who were comfortable on the water,�� P����� Pthey were going from island to island,�� �C�u��c�P�����but Australia was something different.�� h����� hWe're talking about a journey that was up to 100km,���C�u��c�������60 miles.�� (����� (That's days and nights on the open ocean,�� HC�u��c��ʡāprobably in something as basic as a raft that was perhaps being��xC�u��c�x�����propelled and steered with just paddles.�� �C�u��c�������Launching out into that hostile and expansive ocean,���C�u��d�¡��that would be an expedition today, let alone back then.���C�u@��d2x�����When I think about the risk involved,�� ��ϡɁ �when I think about the emptiness, it is just absolutely astonishing.���C�u��d�(�����The islands of Indonesia were another waypoint�� X����� Xin our ongoing journey.��xC�u��d���̡ƁOur unique adaptability that helped us cross the harsh deserts...�� C�u��d�8�����..and break through the barrier of the rainforest...�� (C�u��d� �����..now carried us practically to the ends of the Earth.��(C�u��e Ƞ����To Australia, around 9,000 miles from where we began.��(C�u��e)0�¡��Which does beg the question, what kept driving us on...�� C�u��e=��Ρȁ..ultimately inspiring us to take on the dangers of the open ocean?��hC�u��e]�����It's true that there will often have been a push.�� 0������The simple need to find new resources�� �C�u��exh�����for our expanding population.�� `C�u@��e� �á��But I would argue that that is not the full explanation,��P�����Pthat this is the most intangible part of the story.�� HC�u@��e�������See, these people, in my opinion, were just like us,�� ��á�� �so they had the same fears and hopes for their families.�� �C�u��eΨ�����We are clearly the explorer species.���������I think that is beyond a doubt.���C�u��e������And, as a result,��h�ϡɁhwe have been able to take on things that seem absolutely impossible.���C�u@��fp�����In that desire to understand what was out there,�� ��š�� �in the thrill and excitement of understanding the unknown,�� �C�u��f ������and the willingness to take risk to know it.�������See, wanderlust, creativity�� C�u@��f;��͡ǁand the imagination required to put yourself in a different place,����ϡɁ�into a different future and world, I think that is fundamentally us.��(C�u��f�X�ʡāWe chart the spread of Homo sapiens into the expanses of Europe��8C�u��g��͡ǁas our species struggles to survive in the grip of a cruel Ice Age���C�u��g(�Сʁand comes face-to-face with another sophisticated species of human...���C�u��g9x�Ρȁ..the Neanderthals, who had long mastered life in these cold lands.��pC�u@��g{�ΡȁIn this episode, we filmed at a place I've long dreamt of visiting,����ǡ���one of the most important human archaeological sites of all,��hC�u��g�蠛���Liang Bua cave...����ʡā X..where scientists are still trying to solve the many mysteries�� �C�u��g�Рǡ��surrounding the hobbits, the ancient humans that lived here.��(C�u��gɈ�����In 2004, their discovery sent shock waves through�� h����� hthe scientific community.��hC�u��g�X�����- So, the moment the paper's dropped, it was massive.��PC�u@��g�������It was all over the news.��ؠ�����It was all over the internet.��h����� @Everyone was talking about this tiny,��ࠫ��� unexpected hobbit from Indonesia.��0C�u��h �����- Paige has known Thomas and the team since 2017,�� H����� Hdocumenting their research.���C�u��h:������Like many scientific breakthroughs,���������the initial discovery created intense controversy.�� �C�u@��hXР����- The conferences got extremely heated.��H�ɡÁHSometimes there would be hobbit sessions where within the same�� �C�u@��hnؠ̡Ɓsession, you would have a few talks would be sort of pro hobbit -��8�����8so, "This is a new species, this is really exciting,�� XC�u@��h�h�����this is changing a lot of what we thought we knew���������about human evolution" -�������� 0and then in the same session,�������0you would have people that are saying,��C�u��h�������"This is the biggest mistake�������"that human evolution scientists have ever made."�� PC�u@��h������- Many argued that this was not a new species,�� ��͡ǁ �but a Homo sapiens suffering from an illness that caused its small��(C�u@��h�蠫���physical features and brain size.����ϡɁ �Eventually that was discounted, and Homo floresiensis was recognised��C�u��h���ѡˁas a new species of human - raising, if anything, even more questions.���C�u@��i������- We still don't know, for example,�� �¡�� where they came from or who they're closely related to.�� @�ɡÁ`So that question of the origins of Homo floresiensis is still,�� �C�u��i>Р����I would say, almost completely an open one.�� �C�u��iYؠ����- It's possible they evolved from another ancient�� x����� xspecies of human, such as Homo erectus,���C�u��is�ǡ��which we know was in the area just over a million years ago.�� HC�u��i�������Perhaps carried to the island by chance,���������and then shrunk down over many years of isolation.�� �C�u��i�`�����But there is an even more controversial idea.�� �C�u��i��š��- If you look really hard at a lot of the characteristics,�� ������ �particularly below the cranium...��C�u@�i�(�����..you see that this is a creature����ˡŁ�that looks a lot more like some of our really ancient ancestors,�� pC�u@��i�X�����more than two million years old, in Africa.�� (�ɡÁpAnd so maybe there was an exodus out of Africa a million years�� C�u��j 蠦���before we thought there was.��X������- This current dig might reveal the answer.��HC�u@��j+`�����With help from the Max Planck Institute in Germany,�� ��š�� �researchers are trying to collect fragments of hobbit DNA.��xC�u@��jL������- Ancient DNA is really helpful at really laying out�� �ơ�� relationships for us between different species across time.��XC�u@��jkp�ʡāAnd so, because of the way that mutations accumulate over time,��ؠ�����it allows us to kind of work backwards�� C�u@��j�H�ǡ��and trace back when some of those lineages would have split.�� Рġ���Homo floresiensis, and whoever their closest ancestor is,�� 0C�u��j� �����which is not a question we can answer until we kind of�� 𠨡�� �have some of that information.��@C�u��j�H�͡ǁ- The problem is successfully finding hobbit DNA will not be easy.���C�u��j��̡Ɓ- Normally it would be impossible to recover DNA from a situation�� ����� where it's this hot.���C�u��j���It's just too difficult.������� PDNA degrades really rapidly, and other things move in�� �C�u��k��á��and muddy up the signal, like bacteria and other things.�� ࠩ����But in this cave in particular,���C�u��k�ʡāit is at a slightly higher altitude than a lot of Indonesia is,�������it's right up in the mountains,��@C�u@��k4`�ǡ��and so it is a little bit cooler than most equatorial areas.����ȡ�And so there is a little bit of hope that we might be able to�� C�u@��kP0�����get a little bit of a signal from the species.�� �͡ǁ�- If successful, we might finally solve the mystery of the hobbit.��0C�u@��kz8�ʡāWhatever happens, Homo floresiensis will remain one of the most�� ��¡�� �important and unexpected discoveries of recent history.���C�u��ltؠ����LABOURED BREATHING���������CRY OF PAIN��(C�u��l�������GRUNTING��C�u��l�X�����GROANING�������� hBABY CRIES��C�u��l��ѡˁAround 30,000 years ago, a child was born into a new and lonely world.���C�u��l�X�����They were the first child to be born onto a planet�� Ƞ���� �in which we were quite alone.���C�u��m*h�̡ƁThis was the first time in history that only one species of human��@�����@walked this Earth.��xC�u��mGx�����All the others were now gone.�������� �And in a tale written by the sole survivors,���C�u��m]�����it's actually quite easy to forget�� ����� that we weren't destined to be the only ones.�� 0C�u��mrH�����And yet here we are.��ؠ����How this happened is one of the most poignant chapters��8C�u@��m�������in the human story.�������And it's one that's etched into the DNA�� `�����xof every single one of us alive today.�� hC�u��m�࠭���For hundreds of thousands of years,�� ����� Homo sapiens evolved in Africa.�� xC�u��nȠȡ60,000 years ago, one group dispersed into the Middle East...���C�u��n6ؠ����..and continued onwards as far as Australia.���C�u��nM�����But our ancestors didn't stop there.���C�u��nh��š��Another group began to make their way north into Europe...�� 0C�u��n�Ƞ����..where their story continues.���C�u��nɐ�ҡ́For thousands of years, Europe had been out of reach to Homo sapiens...���C�u��n�(�����..repelled by its icy climate.��0C�u��o������But now a shift in conditions opened up a route��(�����(into this new realm.���C�u��o1������And some of our ancestors left the familiar behind...��@C�u��oQР����..and stepped into the unknown.��pC�u��oz �����We don't really know why they came.�� ����� Was it a romantic notion, like pure curiosity?��0C�u@��o�h�ˡŁOr was it something much more practical? Say, the need for food.��ؠȡ�Or perhaps it was the same forces that drive migrants today -���C�u��o� �����that need for shelter and safety.��pC�u@��o�(�����We don't know the exact routes they took,�� ��ϡɁ �but by following rivers, coasts, or wandering across mountain ranges��pC�u��o�H�����like these, they found their way into this new world.��XC�u��p.������But not long after these migrants reached Europe...�� C�u��pI(�����..they would have encountered something unexpected.�� �C�u��pcࠝ���When they got here,���ϡɁthey would have discovered that another species had beat them to it.���C�u@�p�Ƞ����Two other human species were widespread at the time.�� X������To the east, from Siberia to Southeast Asia,�� HC�u��pې�����lived the mysterious Denisovans,�� ����� known only to us from DNA�� PC�u��p�������preserved in a few fossil fragments.�� C�u@��q 0�����Across lands to the west, all the way from Russia��x�¡��xto the Atlantic coast of Europe, were the Neanderthals.�� �C�u@��qB8�����Homo sapiens were latecomers to Europe.�� ��ȡ�It had been home to the Neanderthals for almost 400,000 years��pC�u��qcX�����before we showed up.��ؠơ��Now these Homo sapiens venturing into Europe would have met��0C�u��q�������another sort of human.��hC�u��q�ȠɡÁPeople who looked a lot like us, but with obvious differences.���C�u��q�ؠ̡ƁWe can only imagine what our ancestors would have made of them...��PC�u��q������..when our two cultures - perhaps just two families...���C�u��r ������..encountered each other for the first time.�� C�u��rw �����Neanderthals were close relatives of Homo sapiens,���C�u��r�РϡɁbut we had evolved along separate branches of the human family tree.��8C�u��r���ǡ��There's often this belief that we evolved from Neanderthals,��X�����Xso we came from Neanderthals.��hC�u@��r�������Actually, that's incorrect.�������We shared a common ancestor with them.�������� �And then, due to chance and the environment,���C�u@��r�Рǡ��we went on these two really different evolutionary journeys.�������So, we evolved - Homo sapiens - for Africa.�� �C�u��r�Ƞ����We ended up taller and leaner.���������Now, the Neanderthals evolved for much cooler,��`C�u��s蠣���more wooded environments.��hC�u@��s#P�����So they were shorter -��Ƞ�����on average, they were about 5'5" -�������� Hthey had bigger torsos, but shorter limbs.�� C�u��sF������They used a lot of brute force...�� 8�����P..because they were close-range hunters.��HC�u@��ss�����The Neanderthals were masters of their environment -�� ��š�� �they had evolved here for hundreds of thousands of years -�� @C�u��s�࠳���whereas we turn up and we're immigrants,�� 𠭡�� �we are ill-equipped and unprepared.�� �C�u@��s�P�ʡāIf you were going to place a bet on who would be left standing,�� �̡Ɓ �you'd probably bet on the obvious choice - and it wouldn't be us.��`C�u��sԨ�ɡÁThe Neanderthals had found a way to thrive here for millennia.���C�u��t������Yet in the 19th century,�������when the first Neanderthal fossils were unearthed...�� �C�u��t!ؠ����..we quickly made assumptions...���C�u��t6Ƞ����..that have persisted ever since.���������As a result, Neanderthals haven't had the best PR.���C�u@��tb8�ϡɁIf somebody calls you a Neanderthal, it's probably not a compliment.�������And that stereotype of Neanderthals has been with us�� �C�u@��t������since the very beginning.��@�ġ��@And it kind of suited us to see ourselves as the pinnacle�� �ġ��`of evolution, and them as these knuckle-dragging ape men.��C�u@��t���͡ǁBut partly, that stereotype is actually just a mistake of science.��Р¡���Palaeoanthropology at the time was quite a new science,�� �C�u@��t�(�ȡand when they came to reconstruct this one Neanderthal called�� ��ơ�� �La Chapelle-aux-Saints, they portrayed it as kind of really�� HC�u@�t��á��hunched over and knuckle-dragging, which was just wrong.�� ������ �This kind of brutish, hairy Neanderthal,��`C�u@��t���ɡÁlooking like it's about to attack, it's incredibly aggressive.�� 蠶��� �And then Hollywood pick up this stereotype.�� (C�u��u �����Some of these images are so ridiculous.��H����� �Very monkey-like Neanderthals.�� �C�u��u%������That impression of Neanderthals just solidifies.�� 𠩡���I personally love Neanderthals,��0C�u��u>��ġ��and the more we learn about them, the more we study them,��ؠ�����the more we discover about them,��XC�u��uT��ʡāthe more we realise that this is actually incredibly incorrect.�� �C�u��u�ؠá��This now outdated image of the simple brutish caveman is��蠣����finally being replaced...��xC�u��u�x�����..with a picture of a once vibrant, thriving culture.���C�u@��uҨ�á��There may be no Neanderthals left to tell their story...�� ࠷���h..but thanks to the traces they left behind,�� �C�u��u��ʡāwe can begin to imagine people who aren't so different from us.��pC�u��vؠ����We keep finding things at Neanderthal sites�� `����� `that really challenge us.��xC�u@�v+@�����Things like beaded shells with pigmentation on them,�� 0����� 0almost like they're being used as necklaces.�� C�u��vEX�����Eagle talons that have been polished down.�� ������ �And then there's my actual favourite, which is���C�u��vb������evidence of feathers.���������But not just any feathers.��(����� �No, the Neanderthals seem to be really���C�u��vv�ȡinterested in iridescent feathers from things like red kites.���������And you've got to wonder,��0C�u@��v�Ƞá��why were they so interested in those particular colours?��Ƞ�����And it's presumably because they're high value.���C�u��v�`�����They're beautiful.��P�̡ƁHYou kind of have an impression of them as having these incredible�� PC�u��v���Сʁheaddresses or maybe cloaks made of these brilliant, bright feathers.��(C�u��v�`�����When you put this all together,�������you paint a picture of a Neanderthal, not as this�� �C�u@��v��ʡāaggressive creature standing behind a rock with a massive club,�� �ϡɁ but actually as these beings very interested in adorning themselves.���C�u��w������Interested in looking beautiful with necklaces�� ������ �and gorgeous coloured headdresses.�� `C�u��wJ �����Suddenly you're looking at beings who aren't just�� X����� Xinterested in food and shelter -���C�u@��w_8�ġ��they're interested in the way they are seen by the world.�� �����xThis - all this - makes them tangibly human.��`C�u��w�������For generations, Homo sapiens and Neanderthals lived�� ������ �near one another.���C�u��w�������But how close were we?���C�u��w�𠲡��For decades, most assumed interbreeding�� ������ �between our two species didn't happen.�� �C�u��x ��á��But in the early 2000s, this was called into question...��`C�u��x+H�����..with the chance discovery of fossil fragments...�� �C�u��xQh�š��..which revealed humans with a mysterious mix of features.��XC�u��x}�����It even smells like a fossil.�� ������This, I assume, is Oase 1.�� C�u��x������- This one is Oase 1.�������� - And that's Oase 2. - Skull. That's Oase 2.�� �C�u��x�������- This is quite special because I've read about them.�� p����� pI've studied them.��0C�u��x�@�����They're hugely significant fossils,���������but I've never seen the originals.�� �C�u@��xӸ�����I've never been this close to them. It's...�� P����� P- We excavated for two years.�����0We unearthed, like, more than 10,000 fossil remains,���C�u��x�������mostly cave bear, but also Oase 2.�� H����� HAnd it looks and it is modern Homo sapiens. - Yeah.���C�u@��y��ơ��- But it has some features which are more like Neanderthal.���������- Yeah. - Like this one. It's quite clear.���C�u@��y0`�����It's a mandible of a modern human with this chin.�� ������ �- Cos there's a chin. - Yeah, a chin.��`�����Yeah. - And Neanderthals don't have a chin.��@C�u��yF������Neanderthals' chin kind of recedes.���������- But then you see the size of the molars... - Yeah.�� C�u@��yZ��á��- ..which are really huge. - More a Neanderthal feature.�� ������ �- Modern sapiens, but with Neanderthal teeth.���C�u��yv������Yeah, Oase 2 has the same hybrid features. - Mm-mm.��(�����(- Like if you look at the face.���C�u@��y���á��- You look at that and you do think that's Homo sapiens.����̡Ɓ�And then it has these features on it, which are more Neanderthal.��hC�u@��y�������Like this occipital bun here at the back,��࠴����that bulge at the back of the skull here.��p�����P- Yeah, that's kind of strange.�� hC�u@��y�X�á��It's not a Neanderthal, but it has Neanderthal features,���š��which prompt us to think about some sort of interbreeding.�� HC�u��y������Neanderthal, Homo sapiens interbreeding.�� ������ �It was pretty controversial.�� 8C�u@��y�𠴡��- People thought it either didn't happen,��X�����Xbecause we were too genetically distinct.�������`- People were just not ready to accept that.�� C�u��zh�����Interbreeding is not something uncommon in biology.���������It happens with other species.���C�u��z0P�����At that time, it was somehow taboo.���C�u��zT�š��- Around a decade later came a revolutionary breakthrough.��(C�u��zm@�š��Advances in genetic analysis allowed scientists to extract�������DNA from ancient fossils...�� �C�u��z��ˡŁ..proving these two species could - and did - produce offspring.���C�u@�z�ؠ����How did it feel to be proven right, to be vindicated,��x�����xespecially over something so controversial?�� 8C�u��z�������- We felt relieved. - Yeah.�� ������ �- Like, "OK.��C�u��z�(�����"Now you know."��@����� xYeah, we were happy to be right.��������- Yeah.���C�u��{�����How many generations ago was the Neanderthal ancestor?�� 蠰��� �- We now know that this individual had�� C�u��{�ɡÁa Neanderthal ancestor somewhere back four to six generations.���C�u��{.ؠѡˁ- One of the great-great-grandparents, potentially, was a Neanderthal.�� ������ �- Something like that.���C�u@��{C�ˡŁ- You know, people spend their whole lives - their WHOLE lives -���������trying to find a fossil as significant as this, and...��xC�u��{j�����Wow, it's just amazing.��xC�u��{�h�ɡÁSince the discovery of Oase 1, evidence has continued to grow,��PC�u��{�������proving hybrids like this were not just possible,�� ������ �but may have been relatively common.�� �C�u@��{�h�ˡŁWe'll never know the full story of Oase 1 and the other hybrids,����ġ���and to be honest, we'll never know the full circumstances�� �C�u@��{�������under which they were conceived.�� �Ρȁ For all we know, it could have been nonconsensual, or it could have�� 0C�u@��{�H�����been the result of a romantic notion like love,�� ��á�� �or it might have been the result of a practical decision�� C�u��| �����like as part of a trade agreement.���C�u��|������But whatever it was,��H�á��Hwhat must it have been like to have been a hybrid child,��`C�u@��|5X�ʡāto have had a parent or grandparent or great-great-grandparent,����Ρȁ�not just from a different race, but a completely different species?��`C�u��|f@�����Did these children feel like they belonged,���������or were they teased and ostracised?�� �C�u��|�p�����We'll never know, but what we do know,�� ��á�� �because I held Oase 1 in my hands, is that they existed.��8C�u@��|�(�����And so somebody loved them,��h�����hand somebody was raising them to adulthood.�� �����pAnd so we tangibly know that the Neanderthals�� hC�u��|��š��and the Homo sapiens, they didn't just meet - they joined.��PC�u@��|�0�����We now know that, for a time at least, Homo sapiens�� �¡�� and Neanderthals managed to live alongside one another.�� �C�u��} �ѡˁBut a global change would push both species to the limits of survival.���C�u��}[��š��It's likely Homo sapiens arrived here during a brief thaw.��C�u��}vp�����And by doing so, they had walked into a trap.��@C�u��}������Europe was plunged into winter.����̡Ɓ Unrecognisable to us today, it became a barren and hostile world.���C�u��}�������Rainfall in some areas fell to half its modern level.��C�u��~������And much of the continent became tundra.�� ����� A vast, inhospitable plain.���C�u��~P������All of a sudden, Homo sapiens were confronted by�� ����� a completely different world.��XC�u��~tР����Frozen, relentless,�� ࠡ��� �and utterly unexpected.�� C�u@��~�`�����There's no way for them to have known it,���������but before the first Homo sapiens arrived,�� �¡���most of Europe would have been in the depths of winter.�� �C�u��~�0�����Ice sheets like this one would have spread from here�� ������ �all the way down to Britain.���C�u�� ؠ����Homo sapiens evolved in Africa,�� ��ˡŁ �so these conditions would have been completely shocking to them.���C�u��*�����It's currently minus eight degrees.�� h����� hI am wearing so many layers, it's actually ridiculous.���C�u��Gp�����And yet, I am still completely miserable.�� ����� It is so cold, I can't feel parts of my face.�� �C�u��c������These families, they were here�� x����� xand they were trying to keep young children alive.�� �C�u��z������These conditions would have been life-threatening.�� �C�u���p�����But while Homo sapiens weren't adapted for the cold...�� �C�u��ʈ�����..Neanderthals had evolved to survive brutal�� 𠫡�� �winters for almost 400,000 years.�� �C�u���������They knew where to shelter and hunt for scarce food.�� pC�u�烀������But survival was also in their biology.�� 0C�u�烀9�ϡɁIt's thought they evolved to store more brown fat than Homo sapiens.���C�u�烀N������This burns more calories and generates heat,�� ����� conserving energy in the cold.�� `C�u�烀y`�ġ��And larger nasal passages acted like natural radiators...��xC�u�烀��Ρȁ..warming and moistening the icy air before it reached their lungs.��C�u�烀���ǡ��When the going got tough, Neanderthals were built to endure.��xC�u@�烀�ؠ����Without the Neanderthals' adaptations or knowledge,�� H�¡�� Hthese early European Homo sapiens would have been doing��xC�u�烁������everything they could just to cling on.�� @C�u�烁 beginning.�� �C�u�烁j�ˡŁThis glacier is the remnant of an ice sheet that's incrementally��ࠩ����grown and shrunk for millennia.�� 8C�u�烁�h�����Deep within are clues about the world our ancestors�� ����� would have found themselves in.��pC�u@�烁�(�����- We're working in mountain glaciers like Folgefonna�� �ˡŁ �because we can use the evidence of how the glaciers have changed�� �C�u�烁������in the past to understand how they behaved�� ؠ���� �in response to climate change.�� �C�u@�烁���š��Many of the places we live in now, where I live in Bergen,��H�¡��Hwould have been underneath a kilometre of ice. - Yeah.�� x�¡���I mean, there were times when Britain was part of that.�� (C�u@�烂������- The ice sheet came as far south as about Birmingham.�� ������ �- Birmingham, my own hometown. There we go!�� �C�u@�烂 ice core. - Yeah.���������So, it's manual drilling? - Yes, exactly.��H�͡ǁ�And there's blades at the bottom that are cutting through the ice.��pC�u@�烂Tؠ¡��- How tough is that? - It can be quite hard work. Yeah.�� ������ �And then we lift it out, and we bring it over here.�� �C�u@�烂y�����We can see... - Look at that.���ǡ��- If we hold it up to the light, we can see the air bubbles.�� (�ơ��0- So basically, this is effectively a time capsule. - Yes.�� �C�u�烂������And this is young ice from Folgefonna glacier.�� (C�u@�烂���ȡBut if this was from Greenland and it was deep, old ice core,�� H�ġ�� Hthose air bubbles would tell us about what the atmosphere�� �C�u�烂�x�����was like in the past.��Ƞơ��(We can look at what we see from the ice cores in Greenland.�� �C�u@�烂ݐ�����And this shows us how the climate��Ƞ͡ǁ�changed through that period in the North Atlantic region. - Yeah.�� Р�����- There was a relatively cold���C�u@烂�������but stable climate from 70,000 to 60,000 years ago.�� ������ �And then between 60,000 and 30,000 years ago,�� `C�u@�烃�Сʁthe climate in this region jumped by eight to ten degrees warmer over��`�����`maybe one or two decades. - That's quite a lot.���C�u@�烃*H�����- It's huge. It's huge.��(�����(And that cycle is repeated all through that period.�� Ƞ�����And then it cooled again and then jumped.���C�u@�烃C �����And this carried on.�������And we see then a cold, but slightly more stable,�� (�����8climate before we then warm into the present day.�� �C�u@�烃`Р����- I mean, how do you exist���ǡ��if the climate changes like that in such an extreme fashion?�� �������- Well, it's very challenging.���C�u@�烃x�á��It's maybe not even possible because everything you know�� ������ �about how to live, how to raise children,�� xC�u@�烃�P�̡Ɓbecomes in 10-20 years... - Yeah. Obsolete. - ..totally changes.�� h����� h- Yeah, yeah, yeah. - Totally changes.��0C�u�烃�X�����- Entire ecosystems collapsed.�� �C�u�烃������Forests became barren plains.�� 8C�u�烃������Lakes dried up.��ؠ�����And rivers froze over.��XC�u�烄1������The real enemy wasn't cold.��p�����It was chaos.��PC�u�烄_�����As landscapes shifted, herds of animals disappeared.��xC�u�烄�Ƞ����And sources of food grew scarce.���C�u�烄�8�����People were driven into unfamiliar territories��8�����8and forced to compete for what little remained.�� �C�u�烄�P�����It was a brutal time to be alive.�� C�u@�烄��ʡāImagine what it would be like for our ancestors to live in this�������world where the land of their grandparents was not�� �C�u�烅�����the land of their grandchildren.��蠿����And when that happens, intergenerational knowledge -�� �C�u@�烅Рơ��knowledge that's passed on from one generation to the next,�� X�á�� Xthat's so important for survival in these environments -���C�u@�烅5������suddenly that knowledge isn't actually very useful����Ρȁ�because the plants, the animals, the landscape, it's all different.���C�u�烅e��ȡTo survive, each generation had to discover the world anew...��xC�u�烅�������..roaming further in search of dwindling resources�� ������ �that might not be there.���C�u@烅�8�ǡ��Homo sapiens and Neanderthals would have been forced to find�� H����� Hshelter wherever they were able to...���C�u�烅ਠȡ..seeking refuge in the few habitable places they could find.��xC�u�烆9�����55,000 years ago,�� x�š�� xthe south of France was still in the thick of the Ice Age.�� �C�u@�烆a������Yet, compared to the deep freeze of the north, it was����͡ǁ�one of the more bearable places in an otherwise hostile landscape.���C�u�烆�������And here at Grotte Mandrin...������� ..archaeologists have spent over three decades�� �C�u�烆�������unearthing its secrets...��h�����h..layer by layer...���C�u�烆�Рš��..revealing a place that was home to Neanderthals for more��(�����(than 80,000 years.���C�u�烆�������Shoes off. - Yes. - There we go.�� �C�u�烇j������Yeah.��8C�u�烇������Uh-huh.���C�u�烇������So, what you're seeing here is phases of occupation�� ����� over 80,000 years. - Yeah.�� C�u�烇��¡��- And because you've got incredible resolution, you can�� 𠡡�� �really hone in on that.���C�u�烈X�����Each layer has preserved a moment in time.�� �C�u@�烈Ƞ����And from the treasures buried within,�� �ɡÁ it's possible to piece together different chapters of history.��PC�u�烈Jx�����For millennia, this cave was home to Neanderthals.�� pC�u�烈lؠġ��But one layer stood out, containing finely crafted tools.��C�u�烈�������Small and precise.��X�ȡ8Techniques that suggested they were made not by Neanderthals,��hC�u�烈�������but by Homo sapiens.���C�u�烈��ʡāA suspicion confirmed when the Earth revealed another treasure.��C�u�烉+��ơ��That then is conclusive evidence that that layer with those��C�u�烉C��ʡāstrange, unusual stone tools is definitely a Homo sapien layer?�� p����� p- Yes.��C�u�烉t��̡Ɓ- These discoveries tell us a story of one group of Homo sapiens.���C�u�烉�x�����Among the first to come to Europe...���C�u@�烉�h�����..they had ventured into Neanderthal territory...�� x�ơ��8..seeking refuge in this cave in the depths of the Ice Age.��XC�u@�烉�0�š��When we imagine the past, we often don't imagine children.�� ������ �We imagine, well, a man, a caveman, right? - Yeah.�� XC�u@�烉�0�����- But, actually, these were cave children. - Yeah.����š���- And you imagine what they were doing, were they playing?�� �C�u�烊 ������- They were playing.��(�ġ��(- But imagine to have been born, the first of your people���C�u@�烊X�����to turn up there - and we don't know,����š���they might have been born somewhere else - but... - Yeah.��������(- ..it's fascinating.��C�u�烊8������Wow.��C�u@�烊N�ȡUsing advanced dating techniques, a team were able to uncover���š��even more precise details about the people who lived here.��(C�u@�烊�࠳���So people were building fires... - Yeah.���ϡɁ�- ..the fire created soot that would end up on the roof. - Exactly.�� HC�u@�烊������- And then bits of the roof would collapse��𠼡���and end up in your archaeological layers? - Yes.�� P�ҡ́@- It's literally telling you when they're using this place. - Exactly.��xC�u@�烊�蠷���- By counting the microscopic layers of soot�� ����� deposited on the cave ceiling,�� �����8the team could tell how often these people came here.�� �C�u�烋C@�����But what happened to them?���C�u@�烋�@�ˡŁThis exceptional site tells the story of a group of Homo sapiens�������pioneers who lived here in between tens of thousands���C�u�烋�(�����of years of Neanderthal occupation.�� �����HBut then all traces of them vanished.�� C�u�烋Ԑ�ɡÁIt's one small but very important chapter in our bigger story.���C�u@�烋���ϡɁWe don't know what happened to that particular group of Homo sapiens�� ����� �from Grotte Mandrin, but it's likely that their story�� �C�u@�烌������reflects what was unfolding across the continent.��`�ѡˁ`This wave of Homo sapiens was lured into Europe during a warmer spell.��0C�u@�烌*0�����They were pioneers for sure, but they were trying to�� ��ġ�� �survive in a brand-new environment as best as they could,���C�u@�烌FȠСʁas best as they knew how, really, finding temporary places to shelter�� ����� before in the blink of an eye moving on -�� XC�u�烌e@�����or worse, dying out completely.�� ����� �Because that band of Homo sapiens from Grotte Mandrin�� �C�u�烌}�á��would be the last of our species found on this continent��`�����`for thousands of years.���C�u@�烌�Ƞá��Perhaps unprepared for the harsh environment they faced,��x�š��xthis early wave of Homo sapiens in Europe did not survive.���C�u�烌�ؠ����Once again, and for the next 9,000 years,�� H����� Hit became exclusively Neanderthal territory.�� HC�u�烍�ˡŁNeanderthals had survived while Homo sapiens died out in Europe.��HC�u�烍*p�����Yet today, we're the only ones left.�� �������How did our stories end so differently?�� C�u�烍�Ƞ����Part of the answer can be found deep�� 𠲡�� �within the forests of northern Spain...�� C�u�烍���¡��..where evidence hints that the grip of the Ice Age was��@�����@taking its toll on the Neanderthals.��pC�u�烍�ؠǡ��A struggle uncovered in a cave known as the Tunnel of Bones.���C�u�烎0�����Oh, wow.��(C�u�烎M�����So this is the famous El Sidron Cave. - It is, yes.�� �C�u�烎jp�̡Ɓ- It's got more character than I was expecting, actually. - Yes.�� 0C�u�烎ڠ�����- And how did you find them?��C�u�烏0�����Wow.���C�u�烏+@�����Such a diverse group in terms of individuals...�� �C�u�烏C������..all found in one spot.���C�u�烏���͡ǁAnd, you know, when you say that one of those people had red hair,���C�u�烏Ǩ�š��it suddenly brings what are just fossils, really, to life.���C�u�烏�x�����It's a cave that's filled with ghosts.�� �C�u�烐-������This was not a natural death.�� P����� Cracked skulls and precise cuts on the bones...�� C�u�烐R������..suggest that this was a brutal massacre.�� �C�u�烐lX�����13 people killed by another Neanderthal group.���C�u�烐�𠲡��But closer analysis of their remains...�� ������..revealed an even darker truth.���C�u�烐�࠰���So what do the bones actually tell us?���C�u@�烐�͡ǁThey were really eating these 13 individuals? - Yeah, yeah, yeah.��H�ơ��H- So how do we know that this was cannibalism as opposed to���C�u�烐���ˡŁjust straight up murder - or, for that matter, an animal coming?��@C�u�烑>�����So you're looking for something sharp?��𠿡���And now, you have a... - Yeah, that's it, let's see.��@C�u@�烑n(�����- Yeah. Yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah.����ȡ@Yeah. So, they're focusing on the areas where there's muscle,�� 0C�u�烑�������where there's meat, effectively. - That's it.���C�u�烑�𠕡��- Yeah. Oh!��(C�u@�烑��á��Yeah, if you're getting bone marrow... - That's it, yes.��H�����H- ..that is an indication of cannibalism, for sure.�������`- Yes, it is, sure. - Yeah.��@C�u�烑���¡��This murder/cannibalism of 13 members of a family group���C�u�烒 x�����isn't the only dark thing that's happening here.�� 8C�u�烒Zh�����That's unusual, that's a congenital anomaly.�� C�u�烒�������So, basically, you've got an inbred population.�� �C�u@�烒���It's painting a picture, isn't it?�������Of those...those final thousands... - Yes.�� �ȡ- ..thousands of years before they eventually became extinct.�� �C�u�烓#������Yeah, it's a silent killer. You're right.�� C�u�烓lx�͡ǁThe El Sidron bones hint at more than the suffering of one family.���C�u�烓�h�����Because this pattern of starvation, cannibalism��8�����8and violence was happening across Europe...�� C�u�烓�h�����..this was a species in free fall.�� C�u@�烓Ơ�����This is a haunting place.���������It's not exactly Neanderthals in their heyday, is it?�� x�á��pIf anything, it's kind of like the end of days for them.���C�u�烓瘠����They've been driven into this evolutionary cul-de-sac,���������reduced to eating each other�� �C�u@�烔�����and having children with their relatives.�� P�Сʁ PAnd that inbreeding would have made them more susceptible to disease.��0C�u�烔������If, on the evolutionary timescale,�� ��š�� �12:00 midnight represents extinction for the Neanderthals,���C�u�烔7������this site is past 11:30.�� xC�u�烔YР����This once resilient species...�� Ƞ�����..was now reduced to just a few isolated groups...��`C�u�烔~�����..turning on one another.��C�u�烔�p�ϡɁBut any chance Neanderthals may have had of weathering this storm...��8C�u�烔�0�����..was shattered by the return of another species.�� HC�u�烔�Р����Homo sapiens.��PC�u�烔�(�ơ��9,000 years after Homo sapiens had disappeared from Europe,��X�����Xwaves of settlers returned.��0C�u�烕7�����A new generation...����ġ�� ..who, even though the climate was as volatile as ever...�� HC�u�烕Z������..were undeterred.��xC�u�烕ox�����These were survivors, and they were here to stay.���C�u@�烕�������Some archaeological finds,��Ƞʡā�their significance is immediately obvious, but others you don't�� ��ɡÁ`necessarily know what you're looking at until you suddenly do.�� XC�u@�烕�������And this is a really good example of this.�� `����� `This might not seem like a lot,���������but actually it represents a massive step forward.�� �C�u�烕�X�����So what you're looking at here is�� `����� `the imprint, in clay, of weaving.�� C�u@�烕���Now we don't know if it was intentional -����̡Ɓ�it might have just been that there was some material on the floor�� H������and somebody just happened to throw down some clay,���C�u@�烖8�̡Ɓbut they actually think that this may have been made with nettle.���������And you're probably thinking, "Well, nettle, really?"�� �C�u@�烖,��¡��Well, that is probably a by-product of the modern world�� ��͡ǁ �and all the fabrics that we use, but actually this here is made of��xC�u�烖G��ԡnettle, and this is the woven fabric that they were able to make from it.���C�u�烖f��ɡÁIf you can make this, you can suddenly make better clothing...�� �C�u�烖���̡Ɓ..and you're able to protect yourself so much more from the cold.�� pC�u@�烖�`�ɡÁMaybe those young children in a cold spell might have survived�� ������ �a bit better if their clothing fitted better.�� XC�u@�烖��ʡāBut you can't just think about weaving as being about clothing,����Сʁ�because if you can weave, suddenly your nets, your traps, are better.��XC�u�烖������You're able to get more food.�������You're potentially able to make better shelter.�� �C�u@�烗 �����Whenever we talk about Palaeolithic technology,�� @����� @you're probably thinking about spears or stone tools.���C�u@�烗!�����It's always weaponry, right?���¡���Well, actually, this stuff might have really given them�� P�����0the edge, as well.���C�u@�烗G��ġ��It's likely the ability to make better clothing increased��ؠ�����infant survival, even in the harshest months.�� pC�u�烗z �����Each advance, however small, added up...��8C�u�烗�ؠš��..giving Homo sapiens the one thing Neanderthals lacked...�� �C�u�烗�������..strength in numbers.�� C�u�烗�h�����The Neanderthals had existed for over 400,000 years...��0C�u�烗�@�����..developing a rich culture...��HC�u�烘"������..and withstanding brutal conditions for millennia.�� C�u�烘D������But the relentless climate, dwindling resources...���C�u�烘]x�Ρȁ..and another species growing in strength pushed them to the brink.���C�u�烘�0�����But what delivered the final blow?��H������How does an entire human species disappear�� �C�u�烘�������from the face of the Earth?��@C�u�烘�`�¡��Part of the answer may lie in the smallest of things...��@C�u�烘�X�ǡ��..the genes we exchanged in the form of our hybrid children.���C�u@�烙 �����I'm going to try and do a demo to explain genetics.�� ����� So let's see how this goes.�������Let's say that these are the Neanderthals,���C�u@�烙#������and these are the Homo sapiens,�������and they interbreed.��(������We don't know where the hybrid children ended up.�� PC�u@�烙>Ƞ����Did they end up with the Neanderthals,��P�ȡPor did they end up with the Homo sapiens? So, let's just say,�� P������they went back 50-50.���C�u�烙Y0�ˡŁAnd we see a little Homo sapiens DNA in the Neanderthal group...�� �C�u@�烙m�ġ��..and a little Neanderthal DNA in the Homo sapiens group.�� ������pThe Neanderthals lived in small, isolated populations,�� �C�u@�烙� �����but the Homo sapiens were probably a little bit better�� x����� xat keeping their kids alive.���á���And also, importantly, they were constantly replenishing��`C�u�烙��͡ǁfrom source populations in the Middle East, Africa, and elsewhere.��xC�u�烙�Ƞ����Numbers made all the difference.���C�u�烙�P�����As more Homo sapiens migrated into Europe,�� p����� pNeanderthals were already declining.���C�u�烚P�����So, when the two interbred,�������the impact on Neanderthals was far greater.�� 0C�u@�烚%��ǡ��If you're a huge population, that interbreeding doesn't have�� ��ѡˁ �the same impact as it does on the much smaller Neanderthal population.���C�u@�烚DР����It's already a little bit interbred.���ɡÁ�Perhaps they were simply absorbed into the larger Homo sapiens���C�u�烚]X�����population that just kept on replenishing.�� `������Over time, Neanderthal DNA became increasingly�� 0C�u�烚x8�����diluted by the much larger Homo sapiens population.���C�u@�烚�ȠɡÁSo, it doesn't actually need to be this big act of aggression.�� ������ �It might just be the fact that we were there, that we�� �C�u@�烚�P�����were interbreeding with them,���������and that we had large population sizes.�� 8�ʡā�Perhaps that was enough to push the Neanderthals to extinction.��C�u�烚�h�����It was a perfect storm for Neanderthals.�� (C�u�烚�h�ɡÁBy around 40,000 years ago, their gene pool was diminishing...���C�u�烛�ѡˁ..until only a handful of distinct Neanderthal populations remained...���C�u�烛4�����..hanging on in just a few isolated enclaves.��PC�u@�烛N������We don't know where the last Neanderthal outpost was.�� ����� It was likely a very remote part of Europe or Asia.���C�u@�烛h������But around 40,000 years ago, that place probably��P�¡��Pacted as a refuge to the very, very last of their kind.��0C�u@烛���ʡāArchaeologists have pieced together what may be among the final��x�����xmoments of Neanderthal extinction.���C�u�烛�`�����Uncovering remains of what could be�� `����� `the last surviving Neanderthal groups.�� �C�u�烛쐠����Some of that evidence has been discovered�� h����� hin coastal caves in southern Spain.�� C�u�烜`�ġ��We don't know what truly happened in those final moments,���������or who was left at the end.���C�u�烜Aࠢ���But there was an ending.��@C�u�烜]������Because after that, our sister species,��@�����@who had existed for around���C�u�烜u蠚���400,000 years...���C�u�烜�������..vanishes from the archaeological record completely.���C�u�烜�0�����It feels like a moment of loss.��0�����0We lost something.��h����� �But also...��C�u�烜������..it's part of the human story.��蠙����It's our story.��������xThese were our ancestors.��XC�u@�烜�h�̡ƁOn the one hand, it's hard not to be impressed with Homo sapiens.���ʡāAnd if we hadn't have been so successful, if we hadn't have had��xC�u�烝 �͡ǁthis hunger to innovate, to explore, would you and I even be here?���C�u�烝-0�����And yet, those same things that make us so remarkable��࠰����seem to be damning to those around us.�� C�u�烝a������This is where this chain of events ends.�� C�u�烝xРˡŁA slow, unwitting war of attrition against our sister species...���C�u�烝�(�����..until they simply faded away.���C�u�烝�@�����But this wasn't the only ending.��H����� After the last Neanderthals, the Denisovans -�� �C�u�烝�H�����the species who once spanned much of Asia -�� ����� may have survived for another 10,000 years...��`C�u�烞�����..until they, too, were overwhelmed by Homo sapiens.��PC�u@�烞h�ơ��This story starts with three species, but it ends with one.��h�ˡŁhAnd it's part of a wider pattern that always goes the same way -��C�u�烞=ؠΡȁthe survival of our species leading to the demise of everyone else.���C�u�烞m������Today, these events have faded from memory.��C�u�烞�������But it's not quite the end of the story.�� ������Because we carry a piece of this history within us.�� �C�u@�烞�x�ǡ��One of the most striking revelations over the last few years��ؠ�����is that everybody from outside of Sub-Saharan Africa�� C�u�烞�h�����has about 2% Neanderthal DNA.���C�u@�烞�������And that DNA is associated with negative things�� 𠟡�� �like Crohn's disease,��������but it's also associated with all kinds of positives,�� C�u�烟 ������like being better adapted to the cold.�� �C�u�烟!������And now we know that Denisovan DNA�� ����� has been found in Homo sapiens populations.�� PC�u�烟5Р����It's as high as 6% in the Philippines.�� Р���� �And it's associated with things like��XC�u�烟I������being able to survive better at high altitude.�� `C�u@�烟a�ơ��And if you think about it, it actually makes perfect sense.���������Because when we were leaving Africa, the Neanderthals���C�u�烟��Ρȁand the Denisovans had already spent hundreds of thousands of years���C�u�烟���ˡŁadapting and evolving to their local environments and pathogens.���C�u�烟�X�����And so what we were doing by interbreeding with them�� ����� was effectively a quick fix.�� �C�u�烟� �ϡɁWe were adopting adaptations that would ultimately aid our survival.��C�u@�烟�H�����Depending on where you're from, you'll probably find�� ������ �traces of Neanderthal or Denisovan DNA within you...�� pC�u�烠������..a genetic echo of the human story connecting us��@�����@to this long line of distant ghosts.�� C�u@�烠7�Ρȁ2% might not sound like a lot, but my 2% is different from your 2%.�������And collectively, all of that Neanderthal DNA�� 0C�u�烠V@�����that exists within humans living today�� �ġ�� �would make up about two-thirds of the Neanderthal genome.���C�u�烠o������And so in a very real sense, Neanderthals�� Ƞ���� �and Denisovans have been assimilated into our bodies.��xC�u�烠�������And it's just the loveliest thought, isn't it?�� ������ �That they live on and exist within us.�� hC�u�烠�࠺���Our planet was once home to many human species.���C�u�烠ۈ�á��Bit by bit, they've all disappeared, leaving only one...��(C�u�烠������..the inheritors of their DNA.���C�u�烡.������..as the Ice Age reaches greater extremes,���������we step into an unexplored continent...�� �C�u�烡P�����..where new dangers lie in wait...�� ������8..starvation threatens...���C�u�烡s�����..and humans have to fight to survive.�� 0C�u�烢?𠸡��For 270,000 years, our species, Homo sapiens,��0C�u�烢V �����lived in a world inhabited by other types of human.���C�u�烢rh�����We hunted and foraged for food,���������alongside many of our human relatives.�� HC�u�烢�������But one by one, we out-survived them...���C�u�烢�0�š��..and spread across the planet as small bands of nomads...���C�u�烢������..until we'd reached almost every corner of the globe.��C�u�烢�������But a great landmass still evaded us.��C�u�烣ࠗ���The Americas.���C�u�烣2��͡ǁAs we entered this new world, we would face ferocious predators...��C�u�烣T0�����..and towering giants.���������MAMMOTHS BELLOW���C�u�烣kȠ����But how we took on these challenges...��������`..and the ways we began to tame nature���C�u�烣�ؠ����in our journey through the Americas...�� ������@..would set us on a path to how we live today.��pC�u�烣�������It's a chapter of our story��p�š��pthat begins in one of the coldest and most dangerous times��HC�u�烣�x�����humans have ever known.��HC�u�烤qР����At the height of the last Ice Age,�� ������ �a time when sea levels were lower than today,���C�u�烤������people were spreading from East Asia�� X����� Xinto a place that no longer exists.�� �C�u�烤�������A vast land bridge called Beringia.�� Р����0WIND HOWLS�� PC�u�烤�0�����And in this frozen north,��p�����psmall groups of travellers dispersed ever eastward...���C�u�烤�X�����..and found themselves stepping into a new land.���C�u@�烥�ؠ����If you were asked to conjure up in your mind��p�ȡpa world that was magical, that was pristine, that was primal,��pC�u@�烥�������you'd imagine something like this.�� ��̡Ɓ �The northwest coast of America absolutely takes your breath away.���C�u�烥��ΡȁWe don't exactly know when humans first arrived in North America...���C�u�烥����..but many archaeologists believe���������it was sometime around 20,000 years ago.���C�u�烦��ȡA time when this would have been a challenging place to live.��C�u�烦+��ԡThey were here at one of the coldest moments Homo sapiens had ever known.���C�u�烦I������And the landscape would have looked so different.�� 8����� 8There would have been very few trees.�� hC�u�烦^(�����And, as far as the eye could see,�� ����� there would have been barren, icy rock.�� �C�u�烦�8�����They knew how to survive��������in the barren lands of Beringia that they'd come from.�� �C�u�烦�`�ɡÁBut their new environment was different in a few crucial ways.��(C�u�烦�Ƞ����The northern half of this continent���������was covered in a vast, towering ice sheet.���C�u�烦�����From here in the northwest,���ġ���this wall of ice blocked routes into the deep interior...��8C�u�烦���̡Ɓ..largely confining people to the ice-free land nearer the coast.���C�u�烧�����WAVES CRASH�� �C�u�烧I������All that's left from their time here���������are footprints, stone tools, and animal bones.��`C�u@�烧`��á��Now, we know that they sometimes would have hunted seal,�� ����� they would have eaten fish,����á���they would have eaten seabirds if they could catch them.�� �C�u�烧~H�����GULLS CRY��������Only tiny fragments of evidence remain...�� �C�u�烧�ࠠ���SLIDE PROJECTOR CLICKS��ؠ���� `..that hint at how they survived.�� @C�u�烧�0�����And whilst this northwest coast�� ������ �offered them steady but limited sustenance,���C�u@烧�@�����the strip of land between the shore and the ice sheets�������promised new opportunities to find food...���C�u�烨������..but also hid unexpected new dangers.�� C�u�烨J�����Oof.��ؠ���� �This is a now-extinct predator,�� �C�u@�烨a������and it would have roamed these parts in the northwest�� ����� when the first people arrived in the Americas,�� (C�u�烨wР����and they actually call it the short-faced bear.�� �������And there is nothing short about this bear.�� (C�u�烨�������When it stood on its hind legs,��x�����xit would have been about 11, 12 feet tall.���C�u@�烨�蠣���That's about four metres.��h�����hAnd so it would have made the grizzly bear look...�� �������..actually somewhat manageable.�� �C�u�烨�������And then look at these teeth, look at these canines.�������The stuff that nightmares are made of.�� `C�u�烨�(�����And when it bumped into humans...��X�����8..it must have been absolutely terrifying.���C�u�烨������And just like those humans,��Р�����these bears, too, would have been hungry.�� �C�u�烩#������But the early people of the northwest�� P����� Pdid not run from the monsters that roamed this land.��xC�u�烩Qx�����Instead, it seems, they went on the offensive.�� �C�u�烩�H�ˡŁSigns of their bravery remain in caves along the Canadian coast.��8C�u�烩�`�ȡHere, archaeologists sift through the muddy layers of time...���C�u�烪�ѡˁ..to find out more about the risks these early people took to survive.���C�u�烪;ؠ����You know when people talk about archaeology? - Yes.�� ������ �- At the back of a cave, digging mud is...�� C�u@�烪V@�����..is... This is the hard stuff.��@�����@- One thing that has been found��(����� hin a number of caves on the northwest coast��`C�u@�烪p�����is, er...spear points in association with bear bones.��h�ȡh- Yeah. - And these date as far back as 13,000 years. - Mm.�� �C�u�烪�0�����So is this one of these spear points?�� ��� �- This is a fragment of a spear point��pC�u�烪���á��that was found in a cave not too far from here. - Yeah.�� �C�u@�烪�������- We have uncovered a bone in the wall of this unit.��h�����hAnd it's, er, 20 centimetres below the surface.�� C�u�烪��ԡAnd, er, so I'm going to pull it and we'll see if it moves. - All right.�� C�u@�烪��ʡāAnd we don't know what species it is or what bit of bone it is?�� H�á�� H- Er, there's not enough here to know for sure. - Yeah.�� @C�u@�烫��͡ǁ- But it is a pretty big mammal, for certain. - Oh, look at that.���������THEY CHUCKLE Oh, it's not ending.���C�u@�烫'Ƞ����- Just make sure it slides out.���֡Ё(- Ah, it's a rib, isn't it? Is it? - It looks like a rib. - Yeah. - Yeah.���C�u�烫F������So that could be a bear rib.����ǡ���It's probably most likely what it is, cos it's quite robust.���C�u@�烫f������- How amazing.���������What age do you think it is?��p�աρh- Well, we have some other samples from above where this bone is. - Yeah.���C�u@�烫��¡��- And they're coming back, er, around 14,000 years old.�� p�ϡɁ p- OK. So it's old. - So it could be the same age or older. - Yeah.�� �C�u@�烫��ǡ��You know, one of the most wonderful things about archaeology�� X����� Xis that sometimes you uncover something�� �C�u@�烫���á��that hasn't seen the light of day in thousands of years.�� p����� pAnd in this case, well, maybe 14,000 years.�� �C�u�烫�(�ˡŁ- Well, we're interested in where bears were hunted in the past.�������And in the winter,���C�u@�烫�蠿���when there's... There's not as many resources around�� ������ �and people are feeling a bit hungry,�� ��ǡ��knowing where there is a bear den is quite a valuable thing,��C�u�烬�����cos you can come up there and dispatch the bear.���C�u�烬/ؠ����You'll have a load of meat, fur, as well as bones.���C�u�烬K������- One theory of how they hunted bears�� ������ �would have meant getting perilously close.�� �C�u�烬k��á��- Essentially, a hunter would go with a party to a cave,��C�u�烬������smoke the bear out of the cave,�� 𠺡�� �and entice that bear to attack a single hunter.���C�u@�烬�p�����That hunter would be armed with a bracing spear.��(�ơ��(A bear would come, er, to take the hunter up in a bear hug,���C�u�烬�H�����which is a common thing that they do. - Yeah.�� ����� - And the idea is a bear would take that hunter�� C�u@�烬�h�����and cru, er... essentially give him a good crushing.�� ��̡Ɓ �The hunter, at the same time, would brace the spear on the ground��C�u@�烬�8�����and aim it at the bear's heart.���������And so essentially the bear would take... - Oh...�� ������- ..the hunter and the spear into the bear hug,�� �C�u�热h�����thereby spearing itself through the heart.���C�u�热RP�͡ǁ- A successful bear hunt could have meant food through the winter.���C�u�热Ƞ����But not every hunter survived.�� C�u@�热�������This is the bone cast of the oldest adult�� �Сʁ �to have been found along this coast. They were born 10,000 years ago.���C�u@�热ۀ�����And this individual has been given a name - Shuka Kaa.�� ������ �And there's so much we don't know about this person.�� �C�u@�热�࠰���We don't know about their family life.���������We don't know if they had children.�� `������But the amazing thing about bones��0C�u@�烮 �ơ��is that they can tell a story if you know how to read them.�������We know that this individual was a male.�� �C�u�烮$𠲡��We can tell that from various features,�� ����� like the squareness here of the chin,�� �C�u�烮9������like the back of the mandible,��`�����`like the angle here on the pelvis.�� �C�u�烮QȠϡɁOn a female, you would typically expect that angle to be much wider.�� �������And it's kind of sad��XC�u�烮k�ϡɁbecause you can also tell quite a tragic story on the bones as well.��XC�u�烮�p�����If you notice here -�� P����� Pthat is a puncture wound,�� (C�u@�烮�蠼���and it fits quite well with the canine of a bear.����ɡÁ�And so we think that this individual possibly met their demise��`C�u�烮�Ƞ����because they were hunting for bears.�� C�u�烮Ը�¡��The dangers early humans faced down in order to survive���������are hard to imagine now.���C�u�烮�P�ǡ��But their precarious relationship with this unforgiving land���������had begun to shift...��@C�u�烯(�����..thanks partly to a surprising form of help.�� �C�u�烯 than themselves.���C�u�烯l�ɡÁA person, especially on their own, would be highly vulnerable.���C�u�烯�H�����- Good girl. Yeah.��࠺����It's unusual to have them all just around, hey?�� (C�u�烯�������OK, come on. Let's go.��������- Wolves are, and always have been, wild animals.��hC�u�烯�Ƞ����Shelley, am I able to come a bit closer? - Yep.�� 0C�u�烰�����- I think the question is, how close?���C�u�烰Р����It's funny, I can feel it in my shoulders.�� Ƞ���� �My shoulders are a little bit tense.���C�u�烰R��á��But, given time, wolves are able to habituate to humans.��xC�u�烰p������Hello.��ؠ���� �WHISPERING: Hello.��`C�u�烰�𠽡��From around 40,000 years ago, probably in Siberia,��xC�u�烰�h�����before humans had even reached North America,�� ������ �the threat they faced from wolves���C�u�烰�蠷���began to transform into something different.�� �C�u@�烰�������Now, we're not exactly sure of the details,��X�����Xbut it might have gone something like this.��Р����(Wolves would gather around human campsites.�� `C�u�烰�H�����Now, at first, maybe humans were terrified.�� ������ �Maybe they thought that they wanted to eat them.�� XC�u@�烱��ѡˁBut actually, some of those wolves weren't interested in that at all -��8�����8they were looking for scraps.�� �C�u�烱*`�����And as they were doing that,���������maybe they started fending off other predators�� C�u�烱>�����and protecting our combined territory.��ؠ�����And because of this, humans started tolerating�� �C�u@�烱Y�ʡāsome of the least aggressive, some of the most docile of these.�� ������ �Maybe they even started feeding them.���C�u�烱y������We were reshaping wolves into dogs...�� �C�u�烱�Р����..and began to use them...��𠡡�� X..to guard our camps...���C�u�烱�P�����..hunt prey...�������� ..and pull sleds.��hC�u�烱ͨ�����Generation after generation,�� `�ǡ�� `we selected the most docile animals and reared their pups...���C�u�烱������..driving the evolution of a cooperative behaviour�� ������ �that suited our needs.���C�u�烲(�����This marked a turning point for the human species.��PC�u@�烲.������Living with dogs helped us hunt for food and survive.�� ������ �It gave us this much-needed edge over hunger,��xC�u�烲K�Ρȁbut it also marked this profound and completely unprecedented shift��XC�u@�烲b@�����in our relationship with nature.�� ����� Because never before had any living thing,�� 8�����Xwhether plant or animal, been domesticated.�� C�u�烲�������This was a complete first.�� C�u�烲�������Unbeknownst to us, we were becoming curators of nature��hC�u�烲�(�����and gaining more control over our own fate.�� �C�u@�烲Ԡ�¡��But powerful forces far beyond the control of any human��H�͡ǁHwere about to open new gateways into the North American continent.��pC�u�烳8�����And as people answered the call of the interior,��H�����Hfar beyond the mountains and glaciers,���C�u�烳&0�š��they would be forced to find entirely new ways to survive.��PC�u@�烳ph�����A fresh wave of human innovation would be triggered�� ��á�� �around 15,000 years ago, when the climate began to warm.���C�u�烳�Р����The ice sheets and glaciers started to retreat.�� �C�u�烳�`�����And as they did, the last major barrier�� X����� Xblocking routes into the continent fell.�� �C�u@�烴d������The first people to enter into the Americas��H�����Hwere coastal people in the northwest,��������but it's likely that they eventually travelled�� hC�u�烴��ȡincredibly rapidly down south, all the way to Central America���C�u@�烴��ǡ��and then carried on all the way to the tip of South America.��`�����`Because remember - they were coastal people.�� �C�u�烴���ʡāIt's likely that they were using some kind of seafaring method.�� ������XSo, very early on,��PC�u�烴�h�����some humans would have started to enter the continent�� ������ �from along this sea route.���C�u�烴ﰠ����But when the ice sheets eventually started to retreat,�� ����� many new routes would have opened up.�� (C�u�烵��ʡāMore people started travelling into the interior of the country���C�u�烵(h�����and finding these completely new landscapes.���C�u�烵N������Some of the first humans to reach the interior�� 0����� 0left traces here in New Mexico.�� (C�u�烵i@�����SLIDE PROJECTOR CLICKS��Р���� �Fossilised footprints.���C�u�烵������Left in the muddy shore of an ancient lake.���C�u�烵�𠢡��The people who made them��Ƞ�����may have been part of one of the very earliest waves��`C�u�烵��ȡof what was to become 10,000 years of human migration inland.��C�u�烵���Where there is now desert, they saw rich grasslands.��PC�u@�烶@�¡��The fossilised footprints of these continental pioneers���������reveal what kind of a world they'd stepped into.��0C�u�烶:P�����These are the footprints of an actual human being�� ����� who stood basically where I'm standing.�� �C�u@�烶S�����And we think she was a female.�� ������ �And if you look closely at those footprints,��������8what you see is that, at times, the footprints,�� �C�u�烶q�����they get broader and they slip a little in the mud.�� �C�u�烶������SLIDE PROJECTOR CLICKS��ࠜ���0And that's because��xC�u�烶�������she was carrying a child.��蠻����Sometimes on this hip and sometimes on this hip.�� �C�u@�烶�x�á��Then at other times, she stopped and put the child down,��@�����@and you end up with two sets of footprints.�� C�u�烷 ������SLIDE PROJECTOR CLICKS���C�u�烷6������And she walked for at least a kilometre north,��`�����`and then heads back south.���C�u�烷M������I just can't think of anything more...more human��X�����Xthan a mother and a child walking together,�� �C�u�烷kȠ����and a mother carrying her child.�� @����� @And it's interesting, cos this whole journey�� PC�u�烷�X�ơ��has been us tracing the footsteps of our ancient ancestors.���C�u�烷�H�����And in a moment like this, that's actually literal.�� HC�u@�烷�蠿���Archaeologists are finding more of these footprints,���̡Ɓleft by a female or possibly an adolescent male carrying a child,��HC�u@�烷�0�����hidden beneath the hard, packed sand.�� �̡Ɓ�It's allowing us to piece together an ever more detailed snapshot�� C�u�烸H�����of what happened in the moments captured here.�� pC�u@�烸2�̡Ɓ- Let's see if we can define the footprint a little bit. - Yeah.���������It's always scary when you start these things.�� 0C�u@�烸M�����You've got to...��������..take them out.��P�ɡÁ �- There's a subtle difference between the soil in the print...�� xC�u�烸ex�ѡˁ- It's looser, it's a little damp, so it's going to smear a bit today,��h�����hbut it will come out.���C�u@�烸�������- You see it so...��h����� �..so clearly.����ơ��@OK. So how have you...? So you've just traced along the...?�� �C�u�烸�������- I've just... I've literally just broken the surface���C�u@�烸�������with the dental pick. - Yeah.�� ����� - And then this particular example��p�ȡ�just brushes out with a little bit of encouragement. - Yeah.�� �C�u@�烸ٸ�ǡ��- And you can see the contrast between the white... - Yeah.���������- ..and the fill in there. I'm removing the... - Wow.�� �C�u@�烸�蠼���- ..the sediment that's blown into the footprint.�� �������- So we think she was walking quite quickly, then?��C�u@�烹��ѡˁ- Yeah, she's walking at about 1.6, something like, metres per second.��X�աρX- Wow. - And, and a comfortable, normal sort of walk is about 1.3 to 1.5.���C�u�烹6��ơ��So she, she's moving. And this surface is wet, it's slippy.��h�����hWe do know that this was a mission.�� PC�u@�烹Qh�����They were on a mission.����¡���They were moving quickly at speed, for whatever reason,�� ������ and the footprint, um, tells that story.�� �C�u�烹�x�Сʁ- Why that person was hurrying might be explained by evidence nearby.��(C�u�烹��ġ��Other footprints, each one around two feet in diameter...���C�u�烹�蠝���..left by mammoths.��pC�u�烹��á��And crisscrossing the footprints of the mother and child�������are the tracks of a giant ground sloth.�� �C�u@�烺������Out in the open, with dangerous animals close by,���ˡŁthe mother was perhaps seeking safety for herself and her child.��`C�u@�烺L��ʡāThis landscape would have been filled with mammoth and mastodon���������and sabre-toothed cats - just huge animals.��C�u@�烺kp�����They would have dwarfed us.����á���The mammoth alone would stand at about four metres high,�� Ƞ�����that's about 13 feet, at the shoulders,�� �C�u�烺�������and the mastodon were only slightly smaller.�� P�����pFor the humans here, this was their new world.�� �C�u�烺������The early people of the plains��p�����pwould have given these prehistoric mammals...�� C�u�烺�蠙���..a wide berth.��h�����SLIDE PROJECTOR CLICKS���C�u�烺�ࠥ���But they must have realised�������that those animals also represented opportunity.�� �C�u�烻"�ġ��That these grazing giants could provide them with food...��@C�u�烻@������..if they could find a way to bring them down.�� �C�u�烻\ؠ����We know they eventually found a way to do this�� ����� because they left a massive clue.�� @C�u�烻s0�����SLIDE PROJECTOR CLICKS��Р����Skeletons of this megafauna.�� �C�u�烻������Some clearly killed by humans.��C�u�烻������Humans would have exploited some megafauna,�� ������ �some large land animals on the coast,�� �C�u�烻�@�����but it was once they hit the interior�� ������ �that they saw them on a scale like something else,��`C�u�烻�P�ȡin terms of their sheer numbers, in terms of their diversity.�� �C�u�烼蠻���But how on earth could people hunt these giants?�� HC�u�烼 Ƞ����BIRD CALLS�� 8����� 8CRICKETS CHIRP���C�u�烼B������One animal still exists which gives us a sense�� 0����� 0of just how difficult that would have been.�� (C�u�烼ip�����RUMBLING�� @C�u�烼�p�����HOOFBEATS RUMBLE���C�u�烼�������This beast can sprint at up to 40mph.���C�u�烼�������The male's horns are over two feet long.�� h�����And, 14,000 years ago,�� �C�u�烼�`�����these bison had an even bigger prehistoric relative���������roaming these parts.�� C�u�烼��ġ��WHISPERING: Absolutely incredible, but they're also so...��HC�u�烽������..big. They're about one tonne in size.��0�����0And the giant bison, the one that's now extinct,���C�u�烽4���but would have been around back then,���������was up to 50... 50% bigger.��C�u�烽K������HOOFBEATS RUMBLE, BISON SNORT��8�����8It's one of those things, I think -���C�u�烽_������today, you can romanticise the idea of these hunts�� ������ �and you think about them as some kind of,�� �C�u�烽vР����you know, adrenaline-filled adventure,�� ������ �but it's harder to grasp that, actually, back then,�� �C�u�烽�P�����it would have been filled with fear and risk.��@C�u�烽��̡ƁOnly a powerful spear thrust could penetrate the giants' hides...���C�u�烽騠����..so hunters needed to get close.�� `C�u�烾9�����ALARM CALL���������Many hunts ended in failure.�� C�u�烾lp�����They needed a technology upgrade.�� �C�u@�烾�p�����Up until this time,��Ƞ�����the way spear points were attached to their shafts�� X����� was a serious weakness.��XC�u�烾�蠠���SLIDE PROJECTOR CLICKS��Р����Spear points frequently broke on impact...��8C�u�烾�x�����..until the design was altered.�� PC�u�烾ؐ�����A subtle shift at first glance,�� @����� @but one that would change everything.�� 0C�u�烾������This is special.�������So, it's about 18 centimetres long.��xC�u@�烿 ������It's pretty sharp.���������If we look at the shape,��Ƞ͡ǁ�it's long and narrow with the broadest point being quite low down.���C�u@�烿.������Notice also this thinning here compared to the middle.��0�ϡɁ0It's thought that the shape might help with the penetration of hide,�� �C�u�烿L������and it's thought that this might help�� ����� with reducing shattering on impact.�� xC�u�烿h(�����We call it a Clovis point,�� ������ �because it was found near Clovis in New Mexico.�� HC�u�烿�0�����The narrow base of the Clovis points�� `�¡�� `allowed them to be slotted firmly into the spear shaft,���C�u�烿�(�����better absorbing the force of impact.�� C�u�烿�(�����From archaeological finds,���ɡÁ�we know this new design rapidly spread across the continent...��8C�u���x�����..and the technology continued to develop.�� �C�u��������Within 500 years, these points had evolved�� ������ �into more slender and sharper forms...�� �C�u���>`�����..able to penetrate deeper into prey...�� �C�u���t������..and archaeologists think these spear points�� ����� were delivered with such lethal force�� HC�u���������because of another piece of technology...�� xC�u����������..whose use was exploding.�� C�u���䠠����So this is a replica spearhead,�� @����� @and it's been hafted or attached on to a wooden shaft.��C�u@���𠾡��So, this would have been quite an effective weapon,��@�����@but this is where technology gets really interesting�� C�u���H�ѡˁbecause it's thought that one of the ways that they threw these spears��(�����(is with a spear thrower.���C�u���6X�����So you'd attach it to the top here,���������and then you would effectively use it to...���C�u���N������..propel the spear forward.���C�u����X�СʁAt that velocity, you're more likely to pierce the hide of an animal.��C�u���ΰ�����And to me, it's...����š���It's especially interesting because what you get with this��hC�u���映¡��is the ability for female hunters to be more effective,���C�u����X�Сʁbecause suddenly it's not just about strength, it's also about skill.��(C�u���; �����The new hunting technologies��H�ʡāHallowed people to take down the largest animals in their world.��`C�u��������Humans had become the apex predator of the plains,��0�����0and now feasted on a glut of meat.���C�u��¼Р����Our hunting prowess was shaping society here.���C�u����0�����This is absolutely stunning.��p�á��pIt's one of the most striking spearheads I've ever seen.�� �C�u���������It's... It's so well-crafted, and it shines,��8�����8and it looks like it was made of glass -�� �C�u@���������but actually, it's made of quartz,��p�����pso it's incredibly strong and it's sharp,�� ��̡Ɓ�and yet it doesn't have any signs that it was actually ever used,���C�u���@������and that, along with the fact that it's so beautiful,�� ����� suggests that it was ceremonial.���C�u@���T`�����Now, when you've got an everyday object�� Ƞš�� �and it's made to look so... so beautiful, and so striking,���C�u@���p������it implies that it had become a symbol.�� 0�ɡÁ 0We're not sure of what - perhaps of how important hunting was,�� �C�u��É�ȡbut perhaps of a cultural identity, perhaps of who they were.��C�u����x�¡��Feasts began to bring different communities together...��PC�u����P�����..and cement social ties.�� C�u����������Sharing meat fostered cooperation.�� �C�u���(�����Food was fuelling a culture.�� (C�u���-������In the midst of this abundance,�� ����� it must have felt as if it would go on forever.���C�u���j������But their world was changing.�� xC�u��ĕȠ����The end of the Ice Age��h�����hthat had gifted them this warm world of plenty��C�u��ī0�̡Ɓwas now beginning to have an effect they could not have foreseen.���C�u���݀�ϡɁIt's thought that melting ice at the poles disrupted ocean currents.���C�u����ؠ����Temperatures in the northern hemisphere�� (����� (rapidly cooled by several degrees.�� �C�u���𠟡��Across North America,����á���the vegetation had begun to alter in unpredictable ways.���C�u���:Ƞ����In some areas, trees and shrubs�� (����� (began to replace grassland and tundra.�� �C�u���Q蠠���SLIDE PROJECTOR CLICKS��𠿡�� �Woolly mammoths could not effectively chew or digest�� �C�u���jH�����these woodier plants...��XC�u���~蠴���..and as their environment transformed...�� �C�u��œ������..the giant herbivores dwindled.�� hC�u@��ų�����Over the space of just a few hundred years,��h�ơ��hthree-quarters of the large animal species in North America�� C�u���ՠ�����became extinct, vanishing forever.���C�u������ȡI imagine it must have been a shock for the early people here���C�u���������to witness the megafauna disappearing,���������because that's what they would have seen -�� xC�u@���"Р����and they're such a part of your culture and your diet�� ������ �and your lifestyle, and suddenly they're not.�� @C�u���@0�š��That... That must have been quite difficult to comprehend.���C�u@���_ �����Now, the main cause of the giant megafaunal extinction�� �ϡɁ �is climate change, but it's likely that human hunting played a role,��hC�u@���x�����that it was this final nail in the coffin -�� h�ϡɁ hand so, perhaps unknowingly, we humans tipped the balance of nature.���C�u��ƹH�����The once bountiful land of giants�� ������ �had become a pile of bones.�� �C�u���������All the hunting technology in the world�� ������ �could do nothing to reverse this catastrophe.��C�u��� �ɡÁThe people here were plunged back to a time before the feasts.��xC�u���A�ȡWith these animals gone, how would they now find enough food?���C�u���`𠻡��A clue lies in ancient holes carved in the rock.��8C�u@���}������People needed to branch out��X�����Xand exploit every part of the food chain,�� h�ѡˁ�all the way through to something you probably don't think of as food -��PC�u��ǟ������and that's acorns.����Сʁ�Now, these are incredibly bitter because they're full of tannic acid,���C�u��ǸH�����and to get rid of some of that,����ʡā�what they would do is they would firstly get rid of the shells,��XC�u@����@�����and then they would grind the nuts up��`�͡ǁ`with water in the hopes of getting rid of some of that bitterness.���C�u����������And...honestly, acorns sound disgusting��C�u@���������and they taste disgusting.��ࠫ����They're still incredibly bitter -����ѡˁ`and yet it's likely that the flour from these and the paste from these���C�u���0������were some of the earliest processed plant food.�� ������ �We actually have some of the grinding stones�� PC�u@���E������preserved in the archaeological record -�� `����� `and if you look at all this, it seems so clever,�� 8������it seems so inventive,�� �C�u���a������and yet it's a lot of effort to go to�� x�ġ�� xfor what are essentially some really unpleasant calories.��C�u��ȄР����If you were starving, no question you'd do this...�� ������..and with the loss of the megafauna,���C�u��ȟ������people's survival now hinged on smaller game��8�����8and foraging for plants.���C�u��Ƚ������But there had to be another way.�� PC�u@�� p�����The solution people came up with in the Americas��ؠ�����would be found in tropical forests to the south.���C�u��ɚ������This place, it has...�� H����� HIt has real challenges.�� `C�u��ɱH�����There are plants - so many of them look edible,�� @����� @and yet some of them are definitely poisonous.���C�u����P�̡ƁIt requires a process of trial and error to find the actual food.��0C�u����ʡāIt was in a forest, archaeologists think in present-day Mexico,��C�u���������that a momentous change took place -�� ������ �and it began with the simplest of actions.��8C�u���/`�����Every so often, someone would have come across a plant��`�����`that was safe to eat,�� C�u���G������and would have sought out more of it.�� �C�u���a�����An example of this is this grass called teosinte.��H�����HNow the seeds are incredibly small and hard,��@C�u@��ʃ������but they can be ground up into an edible flour.�� ����� So, that same ingenuity that humans brought to acorns,���C�u��ʟ@�����they were now bringing to this grass.�� `C�u��ʽh�����Where people found teosinte growing,�� (����� (they encouraged it by weeding out other plants...�� �C�u����0�����..and collected the seeds for food.�� �����8This may have continued for centuries...�� PC�u����@�ġ��..until one individual would have become the first person��(C�u���h�����in the Americas to do something completely original���������with a teosinte seed.�� 8C�u���yؠ̡ƁThere is something so magical about planting a seed, watering it,��C�u��˓𠤡��and hoping that it sprouts�� ������ �and becomes a tiny little delicate green shoot.��C�u���������And there would have been somebody�� ����� who planted the very, very first seed...�� �C�u����P�����..and they would have - they would have known��Р�����that it would require effort and care��PC�u@����p�����and protection from herbivores��𠸡���if it was to ever become something big enough�� (�����to feed their families with.��hC�u@���Р����And anybody who's ever had an allotment, or a garden,����ȡ�or a balcony knows how much care and commitment goes into it.��C�u���d�����This was an idea whose time had come.�� C�u��̊��ġ��Because humans all over the planet started to plant seeds���������and grow them for food...���C�u@��̪�����..and it was an experiment that began to pay off.�� 蠼����Because across the world, the people who did this��`C�u����h�ɡÁwere creating a more dependable way of feeding their families,���C�u����P�����and so triggered a pivotal moment for our species.���C�u���������In different places all over the Earth,�� ����� humans were inventing farming.�� C�u���%������Probably first around 10,000 years ago,�� 0����� 0in the Fertile Crescent of the Middle East,�� �C�u���=������where we domesticated wheat...��H������..then rice in China...���C�u���_𠲡��..sugar cane in present-day New Guinea.�� �C�u���uР����Farming emerged independently�� 𠴡�� �in separate locations across the globe...�� �C�u��͓������..Central and South America among the first.��hC�u��Ͷ������Here, people created what would become�� ࠷��� �one of the three most important staple crops��8C�u����������for feeding the world...�� �C�u���琠ˡŁ..because as the early farmers planted and harvested teosinte...��C�u����������..they began to shape it into a new kind of plant.���C�u@���H�š��Every so often, a genetic mutation would arise in teosinte��Р�����that would actually be quite beneficial for humans -�� C�u���:8�����that would give rise to, say, larger seeds,�� ������ �or more seeds, or sweeter seeds -�� xC�u@���OP�����and, perhaps most important of all,��Р�����would get rid of the hard seed covering,�� x�á��Hand humans started selecting for these better varieties,��C�u@���p��á��and over thousands of years, they created something new,�� ����� that looked very different from teosinte -��PC�u��Β�����because they created maize.�� x�����hIt was no longer a wild plant.�� C�u��ήx�����It was now a domesticated crop.�� C�u@����8�����The invention of farming was to set in motion a change��`�����`that would go far beyond how we fed ourselves.���C�u��� ��̡ƁThe clue is in that word, "plant" - to be put down in one place -���C�u���!x�����and just like the plants that they grew,�� p����� pthose early farmers would have had to have adopted���C�u���=p�����a very similar lifestyle.���������Because you couldn't exactly keep moving�� �C�u@��Rؠ����if you had to tend to your crops,�� ��ˡŁ �and so, for the very first time since the birth of Homo sapiens,��(C�u@���q������we were no longer a completely nomadic species.���ǡ���More and more of us were quite literally putting down roots.��C�u��Ϭؠơ��Farming supercharged our capacity to fuel human activity...���C�u���������..and what emerged was extraordinary.�� C�u����P�����Here in South America,���������there's a place where they began a new way of living��`C�u���@�����on an unprecedented scale.���C�u���L�ΡȁThe stepped pyramids of Caral were once lost under the desert sand.��C�u���xH�ʡāArchaeologists are now uncovering a vast complex of structures.���C�u��к��͡ǁAnd what made it possible to build these extraordinary edifices...��C�u����������..were the fields of crops that surrounded them.�� XC�u����p�����Caral became an immense hub for trading food.��XC�u���������It represented a new path humans could take��0�����0towards permanence and stability...�� hC�u���H������..but for our species to choose that path�� ������ �was not a foregone conclusion.�� PC�u@��ѓh�����I just can't help but think,���������what would it have been like��X�����Pfor people visiting it for the first time back then?��hC�u��ѳ �����Because they would have never seen a city before.���������It must have been so alien to them.���C�u���ʐ�á��It must have looked like a place from a different world.�� �C�u����x�����This was a commitment to a static way of life -��x�����xand yet we don't consider how tumultuous�� pC�u���`�����the process might have been,�� ������ �how much social upheaval might have been involved -�� pC�u���������because for those who chose to lead this life,���������it must have come with a huge cultural shift,��C�u��� species���������for the very first time.���C�u���t@�����Humans across the planet stood at a fork in the road.���C�u��Ҍ������For almost 300,000 years,�� `����� `we had survived as nomadic hunter-gatherers...���C�u��Ү`�����..but settled lives as farmers���������promised a more reliable way to feed ourselves���C�u����������and plan for the future.��HC�u@�������The choice most of our species took�� ��ɡÁ �would bring dilemmas and dangers we could never have imagined.��xC�u���9蠳���In the final chapter of our Human story,��h�����hwe begin to live together in ever larger numbers -�� C�u���\p�����but open a Pandora's box...�� ������8..of death and chaos...��pC�u���~�����..as we seek ways to harness human knowledge���������on our path to the modern world.�� XC�u����p�͡ǁIn this episode, we filmed at a place I'd long dreamt of visiting.���C�u���⨠����White Sands in New Mexico.�� `C�u�����ҡ́Underneath the surface of the desert are sets of fossilised footprints.���C�u@��� `�ɡÁThey've become the subject of some of the most ground-breaking���������but also most hotly debated research in archaeology.��C�u���]������In 2018, the discovery of the double footprints,�������possibly a mother and child,�� PC�u���v�ɡÁrevealed vivid details about who the early people here were...��HC�u��Ԏ`�����..and what animals roamed alongside them.�� �C�u@��ԧ������- When we first started seeing the human prints���������walking alongside a mammoth print,��h�ɡÁ(when I'd first seen it, I was like, "Uh, that's not possible,"�� @C�u@����𠻡��but it takes a while to understand what you see,�� 0����� 0and then you go back and you start to understand them.�� xC�u����8�����- But the prints themselves were just the start -�� ������ �because, in 2021, new research on their age��C�u����������sent shock waves through the scientific world.��C�u@���`�ɡÁ- There's been a lot of ideas when people got to the Americas.�� ������ �Some of the main theories is there's a large ice sheet�� �C�u@���(蠼���and people weren't really able to enter this area�� ��š�� �until about 14,000 years ago, until that ice sheet melted.�� pC�u@���E������- When humans first arrived in North America,�� �á�� �an ice sheet covered the northern half of the continent.���C�u���c������If no humans had been able to penetrate the interior��Ƞ�����until it had melted,��pC�u���{��ԡthen the oldest the footprints could possibly be is around 14,000 years -��HC�u��Փ�����but the dating of the footprints�� 𠵡�� �seemed to overturn that conventional view.�� C�u@��ղ�����- We put in a trench at the edge of the lakeshore�� ����� and we're finding prints���������that were dated above and below the prints,�� 8C�u���������so we can see the soil chronology.���������- The footprints themselves can't be carbon dated -���C�u����X�����but fossilised plant seeds���������trapped in the mud near the footprints can be,��0C�u���������and carbon dating of seeds���ɡÁ�in the layers above and below these footprints were explosive.��C�u@���' �����- So, we don't know exactly how old they are,���������but we're looking at the lake sediments,�� x�͡ǁpand what we see is there's at least 11 different layers right now,��`C�u���G�ơ��and those range from the top of the sediment to the bottom,�� ����� from 21,000 to 23,000 years old.�� C�u���gР����- The dating research suggested the footprints�� ������ �went as far back as 23,000 years ago.��(C�u����ơ��If true, it would mean humans had set foot in North America��XC�u��֧�͡ǁthousands of years earlier than many scientists had long believed.���C�u@����H�����- So, at White Sands we see people here���������before the last glacier maximum,��������xbefore there was these last ice sheets,��0C�u����𠣡��people were already here.��P����� (- The very early dates are controversial.�� �C�u����������Further research will be needed����á���to confirm how old the White Sands footprints truly are.��0C�u���Р����If they date to before the melting of the ice sheets,�� ������ �did those pioneers travel around the ice?���C�u���4������Despite the debate,��РϡɁ�the footprints remain one of the most important archaeological finds���C�u���Q�����of recent history,�� 8����� 8with huge significance for the entire question���C�u���j@�����of when humans first set foot in the Americas.���C�u���=������Around 300,000 years ago,��Ƞ�����our species, Homo sapiens,�� 0C�u���Y������evolved in Africa.��@C�u���md�����For generations,��ؠ�����small bands of hunter-gatherers explored the planet...��8C�u��؊L�����..learning to survive.��XC�u��ب$�š��Many other species of human walked the Earth alongside us,��xC�u��ؼ������but one by one, we supplanted them...�� �C�u����4�����..until only we remained.�� C�u������ȡFor most of our history, our population was tiny and fragile.���C�u�����š��Every aspect of our lives determined by the natural world.��xC�u���1������And yet...���������..everything would change.��HC�u���e4�����Today, there are about eight billion of us,�� 𠶡�� �most of us living in cities, like this one,�� �C�u���~ �ǡ��able to connect in an instant with people across the planet.���C�u@��ْ������And you might think it was inevitable,����Сʁ�the result of progress over time, but surely, our story so far, if it��@C�u��ٮ��ѡˁteaches us anything, it's that none of this was a foregone conclusion.��8C�u����L�����So, how did we get here?�������xHow did humanity transform from scattered�� �C�u���ꤠ¡��groups of nomads into our modern, interconnected world?���C�u��� D�����What happened in that final chapter of our story��P�����Pthat took us on a path to this place?�� �C�u��ښ������On a remote hilltop, in the far east of Turkey...�� �C�u��ڶ steeped in mystery.���C�u���Ԡ����It is so hard to stand here and not have goose bumps.���C�u���0�ǡ��This is the oldest temple unearthed anywhere on this planet.��C�u���_$�����It was built 11,500 years ago by hunter-gatherers.��0C�u@���tܠ����That's 6,000 years earlier than Stonehenge,����ơ���and yet somehow, our ancestors were capable of making this.��HC�u��۬,�����This is Gobekli Tepe.�� �C�u����ܠ����There are these incredible T-shaped pillars,�� H����� Hwhich would've been holding up a huge roof.��HC�u����l�͡ǁAnd then, if we look at them, they're covered in these engravings.��C�u@���l�¡��So, this is a fox, there's vultures here, there's bear,��x�͡ǁxthere's wild boar, and here, this one just has to be my favourite.���C�u���8������It's a leopard, hunting one of those wild boars.��C�u���M������So, notice these holes here.��0�����0This was dressed with furs and they were also painted.���C�u���e|�ȡSo, you get the impression of this place as being beautifully��C�u���z������coloured and textured.�� 8�ȡ HAnd yet, this incredible feat of architecture is not the most��hC�u��ܢD�����revolutionary thing about this place.�� �C�u��ܶ������Gobekli Tepe is not simply a temple.�� ������ �It is a marker of a species on the cusp of change.�� C�u��������In many ways,��ؠСʁ�these prehistoric builders lived as their ancestors had for thousands���C�u�����ҡ́of years, their days spent foraging and hunting to feed their families.��C�u���3D�����ANIMAL GRUNTS��C�u���w�����But they'd made one fundamental change.�� (C�u��ݓ��ġ��After generations spent as nomads, following the herds...���C�u��ݹ|�ȡ..here at Gobekli Tepe, they stopped moving and settled down.���C�u���턠¡��The evidence for which lies not in the temple itself...�� �C�u���$�����..but in the rubble surrounding it.�� C�u���'������Now, this might not look like much compared to that,�� ������ �but this small square building is actually�� �C�u���B\�ǡ��the remains of one of the first permanent houses ever built.���C�u���j4�̡ƁThat there is a storage vessel, this is a grinding stone for wild���C�u���~ �Сʁwheat, and this floor of plaster and stone, this was somebody's home.��8C�u��ޫ �����This is one of the first villages.�� �C�u���������Archaeologists believe maybe a few hundred people�� (����� (were living here permanently...��XC�u����ܠ����..and calling it home.��P������For 300,000 years, Homo sapiens roamed freely.���C�u���4�á��But now, they were gathering together to put down roots.��PC�u���-������And so, the question is, why?�� ����� And why now?�� `C�u���~젧���This was a world of plenty...���������..warm and abundant.�� `C�u@��ߟ������But the planet had not always been this way.�� �����hOnly a few generations earlier, Homo sapiens had been���C�u��߾������fighting for survival...��࠹��� �..through the brutal peak of the last Ice Age.�� �C�u����ܠ����Now that local areas could provide plenty of food,�������people could spend longer in one place,�� �C�u����ϡɁand when large groups came together to share their bounty, a feature��C�u�����ɡÁof our brain had an opportunity to flourish like never before.��xC�u���9�����Our almost limitless capacity to learn.�� C�u���]������An ability with roots that can be traced way back,��ؠ�����right to the beginning of the human story.�� 0C�u������͡ǁAs the distant ancestors of our species were gradually evolving...��0C�u���̠����..they had begun developing larger brains.�� �C�u����Ġ����But as their brains grew,�������the way they were organised was evolving too...�� �C�u@����D�����..becoming increasingly adaptable, and more able to�� �ơ�� �change in response to stimulation from the outside world...���C�u��� 䠣���..until they became us...�� 8������..a species brilliant at learning,�� �C�u���;t�����both from our experiences and other people.�� �C�u@���_d�ġ��The major thing that marks our species as different isn't��`�ʡā`just the size of our brain, it's also the way they're organised���C�u���L�����and their extraordinary flexibility.�� ������ �Now, we call this flexibility neuroplasticity,�� hC�u���D�����because it's like our brains are plastic.�� ����� They adapt, they alter and they change.��C�u���L�����It has some profound effects.�� PC�u����L�����Humans have a natural affinity for observing�� X����� Xand copying each other...��PC�u��� ������..giving Homo sapiens the ability to have a�� `����� `shared understanding of the world.���C�u���44�á��At Gobekli Tepe, the symbols of their shared experiences�������and beliefs are carved into the stone.�� 0C�u���U̠����And these indicate a bigger shift in our species.�� HC�u@���jl�ġ��The odd thing about being human is that we are constantly�� p�ӡ́ psurrounded by a bunch of things that are so all-encompassing, and yet we��@C�u@����ϡɁnever really think about where they started or where they come from.�������I'm talking here about culture.�� 8C�u@���̠����Ritual, custom, language, art, stories���ˡŁand ideas that have been passed down orally through generations,��`C�u����D�����and have now found physical form.�� PC�u@���������Places like Gobekli Tepe became so rich in meaning���̡Ɓthat our ancestors never wanted to leave, and culture flourished.���C�u���4t�����Cooperating and building connections��C�u���Ht�����are what our brains are actually set up to do.�� C�u@���_D�á��Wherever humans settled down, an explosion in creativity�� ��¡�� �followed, launching an era of extraordinary innovation.�� C�u��㈄�ϡɁWe can see the results of this shift in the archaeological record...���C�u���\�ơ��..which begins to seethe with the debris of new technology.��C�u@���Ô�����Our ancestors couldn't have foreseen it,�� �̡Ɓ but one innovation from around this time was to have consequences�� pC�u���������far greater than they could possibly have imagined.���C�u�����ˡŁWe start to see the first sparks of something that would come to��Ƞ�����shape the way we live today.���C�u���)Ġ����Wherever there were humans, there was��p�����pa dramatic rise in the bones of goats and sheep...��C�u���R��š��..far outstripping the remains of the species they hunted.���C�u��������These changes reveal a key point in the human story...���C�u���Ԡ����..the moment we began to farm livestock.�� �C�u���� way to feed themselves.��0C�u�����ơ��They'd stopped chasing their food and started rearing it...�� HC�u����ơ��..providing a regular supply of milk, cheese and yoghurt...���C�u���@\�����..and later, textiles like wool...�� x������..season after season.�� �C�u���l�����The farming of animals marked a watershed moment.�� C�u��嘤�š��The result of this, I don't think could've been predicted.���C�u@���D�ΡȁThis altered relationship that they had with animals, altered them,��p�����pbecause not long after they learnt how to do this,��PC�u���������something fascinating happened.���C�u����䠫���Their population started to boom.�� ࠸����Now, we're not really sure why this happened,�� 8C�u@�����ǡ��but the strongest theory is that people staying in one place�� �ɡÁ �and not moving as much, but also having more food, having more��C�u���3|�ϡɁcalories, basically led to mums having more energy for reproduction.���C�u���fD�����As our numbers rose, settlements began springing up...��`C�u��恜�͡ǁ..scattered across an area which we now call the Fertile Crescent.���C�u���|�ơ��As their populations grew, villages transformed into towns.��C�u���L�ϡɁAnd the largest of the towns of the Fertile Crescent was Catalhoyuk.���C�u���Jd�����An early prototype of urban living.�� (C�u���`������Wow!������� �Every single one of these is a house.�� �C�u@���x̠����- That's right. And you have to imagine, of course,���������that each of these houses is a box, with a roof.�� �C�u@��������But, uh, there's no space really between them.�� 𠙡�� �Like a beehive.���ȡThe fact that they're all tightly up against each other means���C�u��������that the whole thing is much more structurally sound.��(�����(- There's literally no gap.�� �C�u@�����͡ǁ- The only way you can get in the house is to move along the roofs��8�����8and go down through a hole into the house,�� �C�u���ܤ�����because there's no streets.���C�u��� door in the ceiling.���C�u���&�ǡ��The inhabitants lived much of their lives up on the roofs...��@C�u���?ܠ����..grinding grain, trading,�� h����� hand feasting in the bright sunlight above their homes.��PC�u���h������In this honeycomb,���͡ǁ�their animals were kept in pens right next to the living quarters.��0C�u����͡ǁ- Here, you can see bits of animal bone. These are the sheep bones�������from feasting and so on.��PC�u���l�����But also, there are lots of droppings�� ����� and so, this is telling us that, as well as people�� HC�u��贼�̡Ɓliving in the village, they also brought in domesticated animals.��XC�u����t�����- And these farmers left behind intriguing signs�� ������ �that they were here to stay.�� �C�u����4�����What are those holes over there?���ǡ���- These are the ancestors who are buried beneath the floors.��C�u@���4�ġ��In some houses, there are up to 62 people buried in them.�� ����� - I mean, Ian, 60-odd people being buried,�� �C�u@���)L�����that's a graveyard in a home.��@�����@- We've dug up hundreds of burials here,�� (�á��hand what's fascinating is that people were sleeping just�� �C�u���El�����a few centimetres from the bones of their ancestors.���C�u���������- Between the dead, the living and their animals...�� X������..this thriving town was densely packed.�� (C�u@����,�á��At its height, some people think there were 8,000 people�� ؠ���� �living at Catalhoyuk, so that's one of the largest��C�u@���������settlements on the planet at this point.�� �ǡ�� And so, it's so easy to imagine this straight line from this�� HC�u����l�ϡɁpopulation boom to our own huge population of humans on this planet.���C�u@��������And yet, that straight line was severely interrupted,����ġ���because the formula for success that was playing out here��@C�u���5������also turned out to be a bit of a disaster.�� �C�u���R��ġ��Our pioneering farmer ancestors couldn't have known it...�� p�����..but they had opened Pandora's box.�� `C�u���L�����Amongst the many burials of Catalhoyuk...�� (C�u��Ꜵ�ǡ��..were skull after skull with clear signs of violent impact.��C�u���Ԡ����And it's something not only seen at Catalhoyuk.�� XC�u���ܜ�����In many early farming settlements,�� @����� @we start to see the unmistakable signs of violence...��XC�u���$�����..suggesting the two are connected.���C�u��� ��ȡChoosing to live like this, in such close proximity with your���C�u���4l�����neighbours, with the animals which you're breeding,���������with your rubbish...��0C�u���R�͡ǁ..in a way that has never been seen before, leads to this cascade.��hC�u���o��ɡÁThe densely populated towns had become exposed to new dangers.��hC�u@��������Living with their animals spread disease.�� Ƞ͡ǁ �Their dependence on crops made them vulnerable to failed harvests.��XC�u@����ΡȁAnd with ever growing competition for the land near the settlement,�������people were no longer just battling nature,��C�u����D�����they were battling each other.�������XSuddenly, it must have seemed like this perfect world�� C�u���輠����they'd created was cursed.�� �C�u���������Faced with all these challenges,�� 8�ơ�� 8these towns didn't survive or grow into great metropolises.���C�u���7������Instead, growth was followed by collapse and exodus.���C�u���i,�����And as the early town dwellers left their homes�� Ƞ���� �and farms in droves, they faced a choice.�� �C�u@���̠����To start again and risk failing, or rejoin the vast����ʡā�majority of humans across the globe still living nomadic lives.��(C�u���������For me, this is one of the biggest mysteries�� ࠨ��� �in the history of our species.�� 8C�u@����$�¡��Because for the very first settlers, it was a disaster.����ϡɁ�They were facing disease and famine, and yet, at the very same time,���C�u���$������across the planet, hunter-gatherers were thriving.�������And that way of life we know works,�� C�u@���B������because today, millions of people live like that.����ʡā�They have made it to the 21st century just like the rest of us.�� C�u���c|�����And yet, we know how this story ends.�� ࠴��� �Most of us live in huge cities like this.���C�u����ܠ����So, what is it that turned a disaster into a success?���C�u���!T�����Our early attempts to live together in large numbers�� ������ �had ended in failure and strife.��HC�u���H�ǡ��To make it work, our species would have to find another way.���C�u��������An answer would lie...��xC�u��� �����..along a great river.���C�u@�����ġ��There are bits of our story where geography just does not�������feel like a fluke. Where if it was going to happen,��C�u����젭���it was always going to happen here.���ȡ�Because beyond the thin strips of green that cut through this��XC�u����á��arid landscape, there is very little but sand and death.��`C�u���W�ΡȁThis narrow strip of habitable land was the only place to grow food���������and rear animals.���C�u���t control this natural resource.���C�u���L�á��The people needed to direct the water onto their fields,�������and harvest en masse, once a year.�� 0C�u��ﭼ�����And so, they had no choice but to work together.��C�u@�����¡��Put enough effort in, and more and more of this becomes�� ��ȡ �productive farmland, giving these guys a massive food surplus��`C�u@���� �̡Ɓthat would be collected in huge grain stores, attracting more and����ѡˁ�more people to come and settle here, and join this growing revolution.���C�u���6��ǡ��The people flooded into the Nile Valley, jostling for space.�� �C�u���b4�����But now, instead of abandoning their communities�� @����� @when the towns became overcrowded...���C�u���l�����..they restructured them.��xC�u@���ܠš��When you live in a small group, you've all got to be good,�� ࠻��� �or at least competent, at everything to survive.��C�u��ġ��But living in a large group, you can suddenly specialise.��xC�u@����4�����Some of you might become really good at a particular�� ؠ���� �kind of textile making.��𠾡���Others might become stone makers, butchers, bakers,��C�u����������probably not candlestick makers yet.�� @����� @All cogs in a huge machine,�� `C�u���������at a scale that had never been seen before.��@C�u���,ܠСʁThe people of these busy settlements were increasingly collaborating.��`C�u���DĠ����Becoming part of a social group�� `����� `with hundreds or thousands of strangers.�� �C�u���_��͡ǁAnd in the process, laying the foundation for something brand-new.���C�u@��� �����I know archaeologists are constantly pointing at walls�� ��á�� �and trying to convince people of how important they are,�� �C�u���\�š��but this absolutely massive wall is pretty much all that's��8�����8left of the original city of Abydos.�� (C�u���ɼ�ȡAbydos being one of the very first cities in the whole world.�� C�u���� momentous shift�� ����� in the way humans lived together,�� hC�u����Ġ¡��because to be on this side of the wall meant protection�������and access to the grain stores,�� C�u@���ܠ̡Ɓbut to be on that side of the wall meant to literally be without.��0�͡ǁ0Now, humans have always been tribal, we've always been able to act���C�u���4�ȡand think as part of a group, but what places like this prove���C�u���Kl�����is that tribalism was scalable to the size of a city.��(C�u���m̠͡ǁAll along the great rivers of the ancient world, huge cities began���C�u���\�͡ǁto appear, as our ancestors cracked the secret to living at scale.���C�u����ɡÁA change which would propel us forward at an astonishing rate.��0C�u���� �����As these newly emerging cities grew��p�����pand their communities became more complex...�� C�u���������..they started to change...���C�u��� T�š��..leaving evidence which can still be seen here in Abydos.���C�u���#4�ơ��Not in the city of the living, but in the city of the dead.��C�u���ZԠ����This is Shunet El Zebib, and it's so vast, clearly,��8C�u@���s �����but it was actually originally mistaken for a fort.����̡Ɓ�But it's a temple dedicated to a human, a man called Khasekhemwy,��XC�u@���������who's actually buried in a cemetery over there.�� ؠȡ �Not everybody got one of these, which means that around here,��(C�u���������there were now at least two classes of people.�� C�u@����L�ɡÁThere was something about cities that was the perfect breeding�� ��ȡ �ground for producing not just the haves, but the have-a-lots.���C�u���������We may never know why some people became wealthier�� ������ �and more powerful than others.���C�u���������One theory is that those in control of the water��p�����pcould also be in control of the food supply.�� C�u���At�ԡBut so long as they shared enough to feed the cities, the cities thrived.��C�u@��b䠽���Their newly specialised populations invented, made�������and traded an unprecedented number of objects.���C�u����L�ʡāAnd in the process, created a tool, unassuming at first glance,���C�u����ܠ����that would become a powerful instrument.�� @C�u��������I know they don't look like much.�� x����� xThey look like just square pieces of bone.���C�u@�����á��They were found in Abydos, in a tomb, thought to be that����̡Ɓ�of a king known as The Scorpion King, from about 5,300 years ago.�� C�u��� ������Now, some of these symbols are very recognisable.���������That's obviously a bird.��HC�u@���&\�����This is a plant of some kind.�� @����� @And notice the holes in them.��X������These are effectively labels, or tags.���C�u@���Jt�š��These tags were thought to have been attached to offerings��8�����8buried in the tomb, but what they reveal is something�� �C�u���e������happening in the world of the living.��H����� 0And these symbols represented the provenance where the��C�u@���䠵���item that they were attached to came from.�� ������ �Perhaps they have a quantity as well attached to them.�� C�u������á��And then someone had this absolutely revolutionary idea.��Р�����What if they strung them together?���C�u����d�ǡ��With local agreement on their meaning, symbols became words.��8C�u��� 䠿���Gradually, the rows of images became more complex...���C�u���/4�����..until...��8������..we stopped labelling and started writing.�� �C�u@���[l�¡��Detailed knowledge and culture that had previously been����͡ǁ�passed down generation to generation to generation was now able to��xC�u����ܠ����be preserved in a completely different way.�� @����� @And the thing with writing is that like�� HC�u@����d�ѡˁso many of the giant leaps forward that we have made as a species, I'm���ʡā�thinking here about the invention of agriculture and metalworks��C�u����d�͡ǁand the wheel, writing does seem like an idea whose time had come,���C�u���������because it doesn't just happen in Egypt.�� C�u���������Again and again across the Earth,�� ������ �we invented forms of writing.�� �C�u���������Giving our facts, stories and ideas lasting form.���C�u@���K�š��And we still have no conclusive evidence as to how or even�������whether these events influenced each other, or���C�u���i������whether they happened organically,����ȡ�as a result of needing to keep track of things at that scale.���C�u@����d�ɡÁBut however it happened, once writing was a thing, once it was�� ��͡ǁ �out there in the world, then nothing would be the same ever again.���C�u����ܠ����Now, laws, customs��Р�����and beliefs could be recorded permanently in ink.��@C�u����̠����But with over 700 symbols,�� (����� (this technology required years of study to master...�� HC�u���ܠš��..and so was the sole preserve of those trained to use it,��X�����Xscribes working for the ruling class.�� �C�u@���8$�ѡˁAnd the ability to send out detailed instructions to people across the���Сʁland gave the rulers enormous power to influence, instruct and build.��hC�u���s\�����In 2013, a team of archaeologists were excavating��`�����`a cave on the Red Sea coast...�� �C�u���������..when, hidden inside,���������they found ancient fragments of inscribed papyrus.��hC�u����d�����Preserved there for over 4,000 years.�� 0C�u����������It's believed to be the oldest ever found.�� �C�u����Ԡ����And a time capsule from the reign of an iconic ruler.��8C�u@���ĠϡɁSo, this is...this is your actual excavation notebook from the time?��H�����H- Yeah, yeah. Every day, I was recording the papyri,��`C�u@���5l�Ρȁand we were surprised to find most of them have the name of a king.���ǡ��And this pharaoh is Khufu, the builder of the Great Pyramid.��C�u@���T������- Not a small pharaoh.��(�á��(- All the material is giving information about this very�� �͡ǁ@reign, which is the very beginning of the Egyptian state, in fact.��C�u���sĠ����- Yeah.������� xKhufu ruled Egypt for almost a quarter of a century.���C�u@������á��And one of world's most familiar structures was built to��8�����8honour him - the first of the Great Pyramids of Giza.���C�u����T�����- We had to wait till the very end of the excavation�� H����� Hto have the best-preserved papyri.�� �C�u����\�����We only had a small piece left untouched. - No!�� H����� H- And all the papyri were thrown inside...�� `C�u@���������- Into that one spot that was the very last spot��࠵����that you decided to look in. - Yeah, yeah.�� �������- The team discovered around 1,000 pieces of papyrus,���C�u���T�����revealing a vastly complex construction project.�� Р����0Wow! - Yeah.���C�u@���+4�����It belongs to a kind of elite at that time,�� ����� because we don't think that more��@�ɡÁ@than 1% of the...of the population was able to read and write.���C�u@���L,�����It's a logbook, and I can see in the small boxes�� ������ �the number of the day of the month, and for each day,�� PC�u@���b �ơ��this official is giving information about what he has done.��@�š��@For example, here, on the first day of the month, they are�� �C�u@����4�ˡŁsending a boat to Heliopolis, to fetch the food for the workers.��(�����(And when it arrives, it's written in red,���C�u@����ܠʡābecause it's much more important for them than everything else.��0�ȡ0About 40 days, you have a precise record of what he is doing.���C�u@����̠¡��Egyptian extracted fine limestone blocks that were used��P�����Pfor the building of the outer casing of the pyramids.��PC�u@����l�����So, what it is all about is that they were bringing����ˡŁ�stones from the Tura quarries to the pyramid of Khufu at the end���C�u@����������of the reign of this king.��X�աρX- So, this is...this is telling us how they built the pyramids, basically.��`C�u@���l�Сʁ- Yeah, basically, yeah. - This is the administration behind it all.�� ������ �That... That's absolutely incredible.�� C�u���4������So, this is a snapshot in time��X�����Xof the building of the Great Pyramid.�� C�u���PT�����- Mm. - And you found it.�� 8C�u���h������- Without all those records, I think��H�����Hthe pyramid would not have been possible.��HC�u@����L�á��- You can't really overstate the significance of finding�� 0�ˡŁ 0a document like that, one from such a pivotal moment in history.��`C�u@����ܠá��And when you read the translation, you definitely do get���������a sense of what a logistical feat it was,��C�u���ݔ�����building these things.�� x����� xBut you do also get a real sense of how mundane��@C�u����L�����and bureaucratic it all was.�� �ġ�� Just kind of ordinary humans doing ordinary human things.���C�u����͡ǁBetween the invention of writing and the building of the pyramids,���C�u���*������there were no major technological advancements�� @����� @that we know of in Egypt.���C�u���F�ҡ́And so, for 4,500 years, people have looked at these and just had their��`C�u���^|�ȡbreath taken away, and wondered how on earth were they built.��hC�u���x�ӡ́And perhaps the answer is just this simple - writing built the pyramids.��pC�u@�����š��And even though they were originally built for the elites,��Ƞ�����they actually became symbols of national identity,���C�u������͡ǁwhich bind huge groups of people together on an unconscious level.��XC�u���ᔠʡāThe unit of human cooperation had grown from tribe, to village,��C�u����������to town, to city...�� 8C�u��� �����..and now, to nation.���C�u���8������But alongside the emergence of these nation states��P�����Pwas a more sinister development.���C�u���S��ǡ��What had once been tribal skirmishes became state warfare...���C�u���v������..recorded by the victors in art and writing.�� �C�u@����Ԡ����The emerging superpowers began launching military�� �Сʁ campaigns against their neighbours, for land, resources and manpower.��hC�u����d�����Bringing thousands of captives back as slaves.�� C�u@����̠ɡÁMany of the early civilisations follow this pattern of growth,����á���innovation, writing and an ever more stratified society.��hC�u@���4�̡ƁBy 4,000 years ago, we'd clearly made some massive strides to the���ҡ́�modern world, with the rise of these civilisations that were supporting���C�u���>��ϡɁso many more people, and about 70 million of us walking this planet.���C�u���Y������But...���ɡÁ ..the disparity in the human condition had never been so wide.���C�u@���zT�ơ��Some people were living gods, and they would go on to build�� 蠼��� �monuments like these to themselves for centuries.��8C�u@����������But many more were slaves, who were forced to���͡ǁ�live in the shadows of the splendour that they'd helped to create.���C�u@���Ť�����And humankind's powerful new tool, writing...�� 蠿����..still remained in the hands of just a tiny number.���C�u@����ԠɡÁIf we were going to get to the future, the here and now as you�� �Ρȁ and I know it, it was going to require a spark from somewhere else.���C�u���U�ơ��Almost 4,000 years ago, a small group of our ancestors were���C�u���hĠá��forced to make a journey to one of the most inhospitable��P�����Pplaces on Earth.��pC�u����Ԡ����Through the baking, barren waste���������of the Sinai Desert.��C�u����������But here, in this desolate landscape,�� h����� hthey would change the world.���C�u���ˬ�ʡāThis place is stunning and yet, a complete and utter deathtrap.���C�u@���輠����It was of very little interest to the Egyptian elites.�� �ġ��0That is until someone found something in these mountains.���C�u��\�����Lots and lots of copper.�� ������And this stuff, turquoise.��HC�u��.������Raw materials that could be transformed into jewels���������and ornaments of great value...��pC�u��j�����..if you could prize them from this harsh landscape.��(C�u@���������Far to the north was the tiny land of Retjenu.��P�ϡɁ`When Egypt demanded labourers for this treacherous mining mission...��@C�u@��� this small powerless state,���������who had no choice but to answer the call.�� hC�u@��\�ȡI can't imagine what it would've been like to be dragged here���������to work in the turquoise mines, in the blazing heat,��XC�u��$������in the middle of nowhere.���C�u��:ܠ����It must've been like being dropped onto���������the surface of a different planet.���C�u��g������And even the Egyptians probably wondered�������if they would make it back home.��@C�u���젽���The Egyptians turned to their gods for protection.�� ࠳���And here, high up on a desolate plateau,���C�u�����ҡ́at the furthest edge of their world, they built a temple to ask for it.���C�u���\�����A monument which has survived remarkably�� ������ �unscathed for almost 4,000 years.��C�u��ܠ����Frozen in time by the bone-dry desert.��`C�u��I|�����This temple is dedicated to the goddess Hathor,�� ������ �who is the goddess of turquoise and miners.�� C�u��_��ġ��And they were documenting and celebrating their presence,�� 𠥡�� �and worshipping their gods.���C�u��sԠȡAnd each one of these pillars represents one of the missions.���C�u���������And they are hierarchical.��8�Сʁ8So, you've got the Pharaoh at the top, and it goes through the ranks.��0C�u��� �����You've got stonemasons, etc, etc, etc,�� @����� @until this is the brother of the Prince of Retjenu.���C�u@���ܠ����Retjenu is where the miners came from.�� �ϡɁ And yet, the miners are not here on this pillar, but they would have��C�u@�����ϡɁcome through here, they would've seen this grandeur, this splendour.�������Seeing these impenetrable Egyptian hieroglyphics...���C�u����Сʁ..the foreign workers also wanted to immortalise their presence here.���C�u��!l�����But there was a problem.��Ƞơ���They weren't part of the elites and so they couldn't write.�� �C�u��D�ɡÁSo, the illiterate miners did what we humans have always done.���C�u��_������They copied what they'd seen and made it their own.��C�u@���l�ҡ́This is one of the turquoise mines, and if you look, all over the walls����Сʁ�there are these scratches from where the workers' pickaxes have been.��8C�u��������But here, something else is going on.�� Ƞ���� �There are about 30 or 40 of them all over this place.���C�u@������Some of these have been copied from hieroglyphics,�� �ȡ but some are completely new, and here's how the system works.�� �C�u@��t�����You take the symbol and you say the name,����ǡ���but you only take the first sound, and you discard the rest.��C�u��&������So, for example, this here.��p�¡��pThis is an ox, you can see the horns and the head here.��`C�u@��=̠����To the miners, this would be "aleph".�� ��ȡ �Now, aleph, just take the first sound, "a", discard the rest.��xC�u@��]Ԡ����This is another symbol. This is the symbol for house.�� (����� (To them it would be "bet",��Р�����so you just take the "be" sound at the beginning.�� pC�u��} actually looking at here.�� hC�u���T�����This is the birthplace of the alphabet.��C�u@�����ˡŁThis new script was simpler to learn than hieroglyphics, because���̡Ɓ�the alphabet did not represent complete words, but spoken sounds.��C�u��⤠ȡIt was able to convey any thought with only 20 to 30 symbols.���C�u@��䠼���These miners are the ones who gave birth to this,��h�ȡhand their legacy is still with us today, and is so important.�� 0C�u��6������In the centuries and millennia that followed...�� �C�u��K̠����..nearly all the early written languages�� `����� `fell into obscurity as those civilisations waned.��C�u@��p\�ɡÁBut the alphabet would only grow, spreading across the planet,�������reshaping and branching into many different forms.���C�u���\�¡��Eventually becoming the most wildly used writing system���������in the world.��0C�u@��Δ�á��Allowing millions, and then billions, of ordinary humans���Ρȁto access knowledge, to communicate and to document their thoughts,���C�u���T�����and their existence, in every corner of the globe.��0C�u@���ϡɁFor me, this is one of the most powerful moments in the human story,����ˡŁ�because unbeknownst to the underdog, they had changed the world.���C�u@�� and revolutionary ideas didn't��p�ԡpcome from an educated elite, it came from inside these dark and miserable��8C�u��g innovating of lowly migrant workers.���C�u���4�ġ��The invention of writing marks an ending and a beginning.��`C�u@��������Because prehistory, so the period before writing,��h�͡ǁhwe could only really piece together using fragments and artefacts,���C�u��������and now recorded time, history, had begun.���C�u��$$�����And what we see is that as writing spreads,���������the pace of human innovation accelerates.���C�u��QL�����Because that is the power of being able to document��(�����(and lay down knowledge.��C�u���T�ơ��Generation after generation building on the last, retaining��PC�u���������and accumulating knowledge.��0������Stone became bronze, iron became silicon...��C�u���\�����..and gradually, we built the future.�� hC�u��ᄠ����This is the very final bone of our series.�� ����� This is actually one of the three ear bones,��PC�u@��������and just like every human bone we've encountered,��ؠš���whether Homo sapiens or otherwise, it represents a person.���C�u��*T�̡ƁThis individual had a family, parents, perhaps children, friends.���C�u@��B�����But what's particularly remarkable is how much��`�����`we now know about these ancient ancestors of ours,���C�u@��`�����thanks to modern temples of knowledge, like this one.����ɡÁ�The scientists here are able to extract DNA from an individual��@C�u@���L�����who, in this case, lived about 1,600 years ago,�� H�ǡ�� Hfrom a piece of bone that is so tiny, delicate and precious,�� C�u�����Сʁand they're able to ask questions, like whether industrialisation and��C�u�����ϡɁagriculture actually affected our DNA, whether we're still evolving.���C�u����ˡŁAnd to think that our knowledge has got to the point where we're���C�u��鼠����even able to entertain such huge questions��C�u���������from something so tiny...�� `�����p..for me there's a poetry in that.���C�u�� 9�ǡ��We can look back on when nature and luck were on our side...���C�u�� O������..and when they weren't.��H�����HWhere we made the right decisions...��XC�u�� f������..and where we went wrong.��h�����(But what underpins our story��pC�u�� ~T�ɡÁand makes it unique is far more than just our will to survive.���C�u@�� �Ԡ¡��It's our cultural drive to come together, to learn from��@�ˡŁ@and inspire each other, to go further than what has gone before.��pC�u�� �L�ġ��We are the very last species of human to walk this Earth,���C�u�� ���ˡŁand the most fascinating thing about our 300,000-year-long story��C�u@�� ������is that we have no idea how much is left.�� ��ˡŁ �Is this basically the whole of our story, or are we on the first���C�u�� t�����act, or even prologue, with a long future ahead of us?��P�����PWe have no idea.���C�u�� 4������But we are one species with one future.��𠿡���Now, you could never have predicted how we got here,���C�u�� T us.��C�u@�� ������In this episode, we filmed at Serabit el-Khadim,��(�¡��(a 4,000-year-old mining complex on the Sinai Peninsula.��XC�u�� $�ʡāWhere ancient messages were scrolled on the walls of the mines.���C�u�� |�ȡThe archaeologists who discovered this mystery script in 1905���C�u�� ,T�ǡ��called it Proto-Sinaitic, but they had no idea what it said.���C�u�� AD�����And until they could read it,���������they were ignorant of its true significance.�� �C�u@�� `��š��A remarkable artefact, now in the British Museum, would be��8�����8the vital clue to cracking the ancient code.�� �C�u@�� �D�����- This amazing object was discovered in the Hathor�� ��š�� �temple in Serabit el-Khadim, close to the turquoise mines.��C�u�� �ĠˡŁIt's a so-called sphinx and dates roughly about 4,000 years old.��0C�u@�� ���ϡɁ- Linguists already knew how to read ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics.��`�����`What the sphynx gave them was a key to decipher�� (C�u�� � �����the script they couldn't read.��C�u@�� �͡ǁ- So, if you look at the piece, we have inscription on both sides,��Ƞ�����and I'll show you this side first,���C�u@�� script.�� �͡ǁ�And then if I turn the sphynx, this is the most important and most��C�u@� &,�͡ǁfascinating side, because here we have then two different scripts.��X�����XOn the bottom, Proto-Sinaitic,���C�u�� @�����and then you see the hieroglyphic right on top.�� 8C�u�� S̠š��- The message in hieroglyphics at the top was a dedication��8�����8to the goddess Hathor.���C�u�� iԠġ��Linguists deduced that the script below in Proto-Sinaitic��Ƞ�����was saying the same thing.��C�u@�� �ĠСʁ- We can start with the hieroglyphs, which reads "Beloved of Hathor",�� ����� so we have now the Egyptian goddess Hathor.�� `C�u@�� �D�á��Then we have a second part, which allowed us to decipher��P�СʁPthe Proto-Sinaitic language, because we know it was the same message.���C�u@�� �l�����So, we were very lucky we found this amazing object.�� ������ �This is the kind of lottery win for the linguists.�� �C�u�� ᄠȡ- These short, corresponding phrases were the key to decoding���������the miners' writing.���C�u@�� �T�ɡÁ- The probably most important aspect of Proto-Sinaitic is that�� p�š�� pit's an alphabetic script, and if you look at these signs,�� �C�u@�� D�͡ǁyou probably will not recognise any alphabetic signs we use today,���������but the cow head that you see here becomes our A.��0C�u�� H̠ˡŁ- Proto-Sinaitic gave birth to the modern alphabet, and unlocked���C�u�� ]��ˡŁthe origins of the most widespread form of writing in the world.���S�k!+ٻ���+4��������� (����5\�������&�� P����Ml�����X���� @����f䷏�������� X����s �����D��������8�� ������췏������� ����� �������F��P����\����������໖�������� ���������S췏���b���� 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