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x�py�W��j�m���=�G4��=J3 ��D�1W󩦄�ߥD��7���N��D2 �y|¦xwZ�6��<�r$���@�P�ET�;U�->_�P<{;����X������O�9s���Ik����|�R=Gz)^ ���ȳ5[���a��I���O������A��8�`9-Q���&�J�d���sQFx?Z���Uʄ�d���O���*��߭L/�EY�;�U>�Z��� ?Zo��֑ebq�@����֧B�y'ۚ������h O�f��qN�2���_���2������Q��J���fi��A��h4'B��,m�T0�d�H���"�_�z��y�u�WX���|I圌���Y �v�8=���Ǿ*8�V�F]�u�hx���N��e�LonESH�@G�jh.�����4ݾ� ���xكs�© ��jx[�3��ca�v��Vcr0>������ՈgܽO_J [P�⧉���w�ߵ�?z�K�E��ҁ���#��j�fW�[8�Yb�-M �}�PhJ;�[�oJw�I��뚨���ܟ�J��A�����ق�˞��T��ٔ��ȸ�%y�#�ȧw<��9e����"�K��)[w?0�����N6��S�#-�SS��TH6%2�}禴�ʜ�j2���5�<��[���;�O��_�;��(:��s�V��*�(<���M��D������\v �i�/%]��t檛˦��/���H��>c���Q�3�2���tc��dU�'��F��d}�íI��_�s|� �g b�':�G�,}��5U�=������w�FB��n�û.I�F��=*!� *�߅U�t/�Q#�p;p3K��Rh�%�3q��%�U3����희6�QQ�o�f�愬G=�e����E$��.����N� ��֛����`^6�q֨ͨ�񹾆���y۟ƫH�/����K��O�bmQ�C��/z��9��*�� �w^MB�����ڨ�f,�;��N=�?�H{ ��S��L���s1�je����T77L�>m�ޣs�?w��F'��%�*��U�������{�ݲH�����z��՘�5]�����%b��z�����?�8��R9�=)�J�y�:�!����{c�G���k.mCR��l?}�:�X���ά���I����R�b�r���'N�#��o�^ I�.?�F� ?v�ٜ��N@�����n� �n���O MtW�})�+3����⊶m�?t�U���,�ڤK]�QU�(�J��~T�!��*(��f�����6�h��f �c�ʖ'��Š+Jr��6�'�*r��8�Q9Y�~��NA�(��b��؍�q�J���w�(����R��{�NRS�U�(���s1�p��U�wo��[�|��S���j>6�3ѱ�J_�8\��V���v����"���Q@ ��� ��9�/�h����~��S,�c�#� �b;�;|�Z��W����E,��n<���)���ʞ��E�1gw^��6��Ob(��'��Tᶷך��A�p8��� \���*H�J(� �I������E1�������J���`��1ԵVsvU�V;���4��C .;�ފ*��Q�����PKvC�nJ(�Q�n����"���%G@xQEGQ(s��ܱ�I�>]������ �ݹ���*&m��qE\R؆{��k���� �� (�� ebw-�z�Iܷ+��(&DΨy�G#H뜝��z�E�d�P9f_L�ɼ����E����z~"�'�PJ� �ɜ"�S��bи ?A�VN�ܚ;�0?x���i%���f�h����W�)]Dbl6���Gy^�OAE�����:g���� �I��c/�j6�H�e�ނ�(#��M�j���LQECܙnViW?)��f�y~sE��<�Qۊ(����F��YyF3l�C�u��+4�����Where do we come from?�� (����� (When did our story really begin?�� PC�u��Ml�����Who were the first Homo sapiens?�� @C�u��f䠭���Not just humans who looked like us,�� X����� Xbut people who thought and behaved as we do.�� XC�u�炉������People we would recognise as truly one of us.��C�u�炭Ԡá��We, Homo sapiens, first appeared over 300,000 years ago.��`C�u���$�����We were not the first species of human.�� ����� We're not the biggest, we're not the strongest,�� �C�u@��������we're just the latest in a long line of other humans.�� �ȡ Yet, a few hundred thousand years later, we are the only ones��PC�u��\�á��left, and the most dominant form of life on this planet.���C�u��<�����How on earth did this happen?���C�u��>������I'm Ella Al-Shamahi, a paleoanthropologist.���C�u��S져���People spend their whole lives trying to find�� ࠪ��� �a fossil as significant as this.���C�u@��qt�ɡÁYou might think you know the story of human evolution, but now���ԡ΁�we are discovering it's stranger and more dramatic than we ever imagined.���C�u����ʡāThis was something that wiped out 13 people in the same family.��XC�u���d�����Thanks to ground-breaking new science, we are�� ࠭��� �rewriting the story of our origins.�� C�u���D�����From our tentative first steps...���C�u���������..to the migrations that carried us across continents.�� C�u��L�̡ƁAnd our encounters with other human species we met along the way.��PC�u��)Ԡ����It's small, it's really tiny.�� ؠ���� �I can see why you would call it the Hobbit.�� C�u��G������From the first marks we made on cave walls...�� 0C�u��_D�����..to the rise of cities...���C�u��u젺���..these are the unlikely events that forged us.�� ����� Moments of chance, but also ingenuity,�� �C�u���Ԡ����of beauty and destruction.���C�u@���������This is us, this is our story, and it's what happened����Ρȁ�in the 99% of our history before the invention of writing, when our���C�u���t�ϡɁstory wasn't written in books, but was written in our bones and DNA.��`C�u���,�����This is the story of how we became...�� �C�u��䠒���..human.���C�u��u�����This story begins in Africa, in a time long ago...��XC�u���������..in a world before we existed at all.�� PC�u���Ġ����In many ways, this world would feel familiar...�� Ƞ�����..teeming with animals we'd recognise.�� xC�u���ܠ����But there was one crucial difference.�� �C�u��D�����This world was inhabited by not one,���������but by many other types of human.�� �C�u@��C�š��We're used to living in a world filled with other species.��࠷����Over eight million share our planet with us.��0C�u��e�͡ǁBut there is only one of us, only one human species, Homo sapiens.��(C�u@��~<�ΡȁAnd so, it's really easy to forget that it wasn't always like this.��`�á��`The world before us was alive with other human activity.��C�u����á��Around six million years before Homo sapiens appeared...�� �C�u���̠����..some primates left the trees.�� �C�u���L�ϡɁThey started walking upright and over time, began using stone tools.���C�u��|�����These toolmakers became the earliest form of human.�� �C�u����ơ��Over millions of years, these humans continued to evolve...���C�u��7��ơ��..forming a diverse family tree of different human species.��(C�u@��YĠȡWho were these other humans and how are we connected to them?��x�����xWell, they're all part of our extended family,�� �C�u@��t̠����so our parents, grandparents, great-aunts, cousins.��@�����@Some were our ancestors, others just relatives.�� HC�u���T�š��But all of them were part of our lineage, our family tree,���������that spanned millennia.��PC�u���<�����Around the time Homo sapiens emerged...�� ������..there were at least six different human species.�� XC�u���T�����And using the latest scientific data,�� ����� we can reconstruct what they might have looked like.�� �C�u���������There were so many species of human.����ǡ���You had Homo erectus, an ancestor of ours, and an incredibly���C�u����Ρȁsuccessful species, because they lived for about two million years.�� �C�u��/��ѡˁNow, Homo erectus was actually the first in our genus to leave Africa.��C�u��QD�¡��And we also think that they were the first to use fire.�� 0C�u��jl�����There's also Homo neanderthalensis,�� `����� `who you probably know as the Neanderthals.���C�u����ǡ��Neanderthals lived in Europe, all the way into Central Asia.���������They were cold-adapted.���C�u���ܠ����And they were expert hunters.�� 0C�u���,�����There was also Homo floresiensis,�� x����� xwho some people affectionately call the Hobbit...�� (C�u��򬠷���..because they were only about a metre tall,�� ����� so that's about three and a half feet.��XC�u�������Tiny, and yet adapted for living on an island.��@C�u��(l�¡��It seems like a fantastical world, and I can't help it,��`�����`it reminds me of Lord Of The Rings.���C�u��B\�����Only, instead of a world with elves and dwarves,�������you had a magical place with other humans.���C�u��|������The human family tree had many branches.�� �C�u���䠿���But which branch did Homo sapiens first emerge from?��8C�u���\�����We don't know for sure,��Р�����but we're getting closer than ever to finding out.�� XC�u��>ܠϡɁFor the longest time, we thought we knew the origins of our species.��hC�u��TD�����We thought we began 200,000 years ago in East Africa.�� C�u@��s������But new revelations from out here in Morocco,�� �ȡ from a part of Africa that people weren't really considering,��C�u����ɡÁare forcing us to rethink our very first steps on this planet.���C�u@��������In a remote cave in North West Africa,�� Ƞơ�� �a chance discovery uncovered some mysterious human remains.��C�u���������Someone unexpected was living here...�� �C�u�� ������..thousands of years earlier than we imagined.�� �C�u@�� ������This is Jebel Irhoud 1, and it was a complete mystery,�������because some of its features are very much like us,���C�u�� �ܠ͡ǁvery Homo sapiens, and others are much older, much more primitive.��pC�u�� �����So, if you look at this individual's face,���������its face looks a lot like ours.�� HC�u�� 4䠷���The Homo sapiens face is incredibly gracile.�������We have incredibly delicate features.�� �C�u�� M������They, kind of, tuck in under our brain case.��࠭����If you imagine a prehistoric human,�� �C�u@�� i<�ơ��you kind of always imagine a much, kind of more prognathic,�� ������ �we say, much more kind of jutting forwards face.�� C�u@�� �ԠϡɁThis individual's face is much more tucked under, it's much shorter.�� ������ �But there are some features that aren't us.�� XC�u�� ��ǡ��Notice this brow ridge up here, this supraorbital structure.��Р�����Now, look at me.��hC�u�� �$�ơ��You don't get modern humans walking around today with these�� ࠮��� �massive things on top of their eyes.�� �C�u@� ʔ�ΡȁI mean, it would actually be quite terrifying today if we saw that.�� ������ �Now, the brain case is not us.��xC�u�� 圠����You see how round my brain case is?���������It's globular, whereas this is almost stretched out.�� �C�u@�� �Ġġ��It's almost like somebody's got my brain case but kind of�� ������ �stretched the back of it out.����¡��8It's almost like straight-on, the face is Homo sapiens,���C�u�� $䠲���but from the other angles, it's not us.���C�u@�� Z|�����These finds posed a mystery.�� ��ѡˁ �They were anomalies that didn't fit neatly into the human family tree.��C�u�� �������They looked partly like Homo sapiens...�� C�u�� � �����..and partly like an earlier human.�� �C�u�� �Ԡ����So, the question was, was this a different species,��蠰����or could it be an early version of us?�� �C�u�� $�͡ǁSeveral decades after the initial discoveries came a breakthrough.���C�u�� 8������Archaeologists uncovered another 16 fossils...���C�u�� M$�����..all with the same blend of features.�� �C�u�� �䠰���With each new find, the evidence grew.�� �C�u�� �Ġ����These were not some other species, but Homo sapiens,��PC�u�� �����with hints of an earlier ancestor.���C�u@�� #��ʡāBut it wasn't until archaeologists were able to more accurately��@�ϡɁ@date the remains that the final piece of the puzzle fell into place.���C�u@�� [$�ȡThe archaeologists, using new and improved dating techniques,�� 0�ɡÁ 0were able to give us dates for these fossils, and they tell us��0C�u�� }������that these individuals lived about 300,000 years ago.��8�����8And that is mind-boggling,���C�u�� �<�ˡŁbecause we thought our species was only about 200,000 years old.��C�u�� �T�ȡWhat these fossils tell us is that our species, Homo sapiens,���C�u�� � �����is 100,000 years older than we thought.�� ������ �We are a third older than we realised.�� �C�u�� �T�����This fossil went from being enigmatic�� ������ �and basically a mystery,��0C�u�� ��ɡÁto being one of the most important fossils in our whole field.��hC�u�� �ɡÁThousands of miles from East Africa where we thought we began,��(�����(and far older than expected...��C�u���ӡ́- Once they were manufactured, then you did one of three things with it.���������You either manufactured it perfectly and just left it.��`C�u��%a젺���- Mh-hm. - Or more interestingly, you burnt it.�� pC�u��%�������But not burnt to just, like, throwing it in a bonfire.���C�u��%�\�����It's controlled burning.���C�u@��%�\�ǡ��And the third and most bizarre thing that they did with them��Ƞ�����is they made it, manufactured it perfectly,���C�u@��%ܼ�ѡˁand when they were finished, turned it over, smashed it in the middle.��࠶����- These are offerings, aren't they? - Yeah.��pC�u@��%� �¡��The only thing that makes sense, the on... The best fit��8�����8is that they're sacrifices, they're offerings.�� C�u��&\�����They're not doing it for fun.���ɡÁ�They feel that coming up and doing this act would satisfy some��pC�u��&-��ˡŁkind of a need, some kind of, um, a wish, some kind of a desire.���C�u��&R��š��Although it's absolutely magnificent during the daytime...�� X������..it comes to life at night.�� (C�u��&�l�����- We can't speak to these people, but this...�� H������..this whole place, it gets us�� C�u@��&�t�ϡɁso much closer to what they were thinking, what was going on inside.���š��- Yeah. We had always had the impression that this type of���C�u��&̈́�͡ǁabstract thinking would've been beyond the ancestors at that time,���C�u@��&��Ρȁand now we definitely have evidence that that was absolutely wrong,��ؠȡ�that they obviously had the ability to hold abstract thought.��PC�u@��'D�����You make an offering and hope for something back.��P�ˡŁP- Asking for probably some of the things that we would ask for -�� �C�u��'"\�����food, health, children, etc, etc - and you just think,��@C�u��'7��ʡā"Oh, my gosh, that's some of the... That's some of the earliest��h�����h"behaviour that we know so well."���C�u@��'xL�á��Some believe the people who performed these rituals must�� H����� Hhave been holding abstract ideas in their heads...�� �C�u@��'�L�����..imagining things they couldn't see.�� 8�ѡˁ�A clue their minds were sparking and forming connections in a new way.���C�u��'Д�����When I see this, this is what moves me,�� ����� because this is who we are, in a way��(C�u��'�ܠ����that feels more us than bones.��0C�u��(<�����See, it is so familiar to us.�� ����� We know this behaviour. This is ritual.�� �C�u@��(1L�����Whether it is religion and spirituality, or things�� @�Сʁ @like the handshake, or birthdays, graduation ceremonies, Burning Man,���C�u��(OL�ӡ́Glastonbury, New Year's Eve, we are, as a species, obsessed with ritual.���C�u��(fD�š��It is profoundly and fundamentally Homo sapiens behaviour.��C�u��({\�����It's us. We know it.�� `C�u��(���¡��It was as if they were able to see beyond the tangible.��XC�u��(�T�ġ��They were thinking beyond what was just in front of them.���C�u��(�T�ġ��They were venturing into the unknown and into the unseen.���C�u��) �ʡāBehaviour like this marked a new chapter in our species' story.��hC�u��)*4�ʡāOur minds were awakening, opening up to a world of possibility.��C�u��)Z,�����This wasn't confined to ritual.�������� �It touched every part of our lives.�� �C�u��)�$�����Around 70,000 years ago,�� ������ �new weapons began appearing across Southern Africa.��8C�u��)�$�����Homo sapiens were using abstract thought to innovate.��C�u��*\�ȡInventing complex projectile weapons, like the bow and arrow.��C�u��*7��ˡŁWe were seeing the world not just as it was, but as it could be.��8C�u@��*QԠ¡��It takes a lot to see the potential in a piece of wood.���¡��Projectile weapons were revolutionary technology for us��@C�u@��*p$�ġ��humans, because up until now, we'd been using close-range�� �ơ�� hunting strategies, which were less effective, less lethal,��XC�u��*���ġ��and yet more dangerous for the person holding the weapon.�� 0C�u��*���ɡÁFor over two million years, early humans mostly relied on axes��C�u��*Ĭ�����and spears.��(C�u��*� �����But Homo sapiens imagined unseen forces like the power���������held in wood and string.�� �C�u��+������Creating something entirely new.�� (C�u@��+2������If you look at this bow and arrow, you can�� ����� see how much knowledge is required.���ʡāYou need to know where to get the wood for the bow, you need to���C�u@��+U4�ϡɁknow about the glue, you need to know how taut the string should be.���������So many elements that require, not just knowledge,�� �C�u@��+p������but the ability to pass that knowledge on.�� 8�ȡ 8Something like this is not the result of one person's genius.��xC�u��+�d�ǡ��It's the result of many, many people, over many generations,���C�u��+������inventing, reinventing, perfecting, tinkering.���C�u��+�,�����We weren't just inventing.��@����� �We were adapting and expanding our knowledge.�� hC�u��+�t�����Human culture was becoming more complex,�� ������ �that technology was exploding.�� C�u@��,<�ʡāNow, many of us think that this is a result of something called�� Ƞ͡ǁ �cumulative culture, the idea that you accumulate culture, so every���C�u��,,Ԡӡ́generation builds upon the previous generation's science and technology.���C�u��,W|�����With cumulative culture, Homo sapiens were becoming�� 0����� 0collectively smarter with every generation.�� pC�u��,}��СʁAnd as our numbers increased, this was more powerful than any weapon.���C�u��,�\�¡��A giant leap towards becoming the species we are today.���C�u��,⌠����When was our species truly born?�� �C�u��,�������Was it when we first appeared?���C�u��- Ԡ����Or when we started to look like modern humans?�� C�u��-4�����Or was it when our minds lit up?���������Creating, inventing, and building on our knowledge.��C�u��-k�����Each was a crucial step in our evolution.�� C�u��-���š��But none would be possible without one special ingredient.���C�u��-�������The glue that binds all of our achievements together.��C�u��-�������It leaves no direct fossil evidence,�� @�¡�� @but we can find traces of it in some unexpected places.��@C�u��.��š��In archaeology, sometimes the smallest finds actually tell��XC�u��.�����the grandest of stories.�� 0����� 0These are tiny marine shells,���C�u@��.=�ɡÁand shells like this have been found in caves in South Africa,�� ��ǡ�� �and they are just too small to have been collected for meat.���C�u��.\4�ԡ΁If you look really closely, what you see is that they have holes in them.�� C�u@��.sT�̡ƁNow, some of these were collected because they already had holes,�� ����� but others were perforated by Homo sapiens.���C�u��.� �ӡ́And really close examination of the shells in these caves show that they��HC�u��.�T�ϡɁhad wear marks on them consistent with having been worn on the body.��XC�u��/,T�ΡȁSo, that, along with these holes in them, well, it's really easy to���C�u��/AD�����paint a picture of them having been strung...��`C�u��/\$�����..and turned into jewellery.���C�u��/�������These weren't just beads, they were emblems.�� X������Symbols of value and meaning...���C�u��/�䠮���..shared and understood by everyone.�� XC�u@��/�<�����They've been found with pigment on them,����š���and it's always the same-coloured pigment, it's red ochre.���C�u��0ܠ͡ǁEven though ochre comes in yellow, black and red, it's always red.���C�u@��0+,�����Perhaps you were trading them for food, for goods,�� �ǡ�� perhaps you'd give them as some kind of a gift at a wedding,��C�u@��0K\�����perhaps they were just a sign of friendliness.�� h�š�� hAnd you can also imagine that people would be wearing them�� xC�u��0a<�Сʁto make themselves look good, it would perhaps be a sign of prestige.���C�u@��0�̠����The making and sharing of these beads was one more�� ������ �sign our species had made another revolutionary leap.��C�u��0�4�����The ability to pass on knowledge and technology,�� ������ �sharing rituals and traditions.�� �C�u��0ᄠ����All these things suggest Homo sapiens were passing��(�����(sophisticated ideas from one mind to another.��hC�u��1�¡��Our species had unlocked the power of complex language.��pC�u@��1)<�ġ��The most remarkable thing about these shells is that they����ɡÁ�have been found not just in South Africa, but all over Africa,���C�u@��1KĠ̡Ɓfrom the south, all the way to the north, in Morocco and Algeria.��8�����8Not just along the coasts, but all the way inland.��8C�u��1w������And that, for me, is so exciting,���C�u��1�������because when you look at this,�� ����� you might think, "Oh, my God, isn't that amazing?�� 0C�u��1�젵���"Humans have a kind of cultural expression�� 𠧡�� �"that they never had before."���C�u��1�$�����While earlier humans probably had basic language...��C�u��1�\�¡��..it's thought Homo sapiens were speaking to each other�� Р���� �in a more complex way.��XC�u��2 �����Weaving a shared culture.���������And forging an invisible bond that united our species���C�u��24�����across the entire continent.�� PC�u��2TĠ����All over Africa, we understood the cultural symbolism��xC�u��2n<�����of these beads.���Ρȁ�Somebody was telling you, "This shell is important, not that shell.���C�u��2�ܠ����"Red is important, not the other colours."�� Р���� �We had an understanding that wasn't just you, me,��PC�u@��2���ơ��and our three families, you, me, and the village next-door.��`�����`We had a kind of symbolism and understanding�� XC�u��2�������and interconnectedness that was continent-wide.��pC�u��2Մ�����This has never happened before.���������For me, this is the birth of our species.��hC�u��3������Our species' birth wasn't a single moment.�� ������ �It unfolded over millennia.�� �C�u��33��ʡāComplex language and our powerful shared culture finally set us���������apart from humans before us.�� �C�u��3_������We had become one connected, cooperative species.���C�u��3~�����We had become Homo sapiens...�� ؠ�����..the ancestors of us all.���C�u��3� �����Sometimes in life, things come together,�� ������ �and this was a coming together for our species.�� �C�u��3۴�����It was a perfect storm.�� h�ʡā hYou had a change in brain, you had language, increased numbers,��C�u@�3�$�ȡincreased connectivity, cumulative culture, better technology��8�����8and weaponry, and the right climate.�� �C�u��4D�����But through all of this, there is a hidden thread.���C�u��4'��ʡāOur secret weapon is that we are a social, cooperative species.��HC�u��4?<�����Friendliness, it turns out, is our superpower.��(�����(We are more than the sum of our parts.��0C�u��4_������Whether it's ritual, technology, language,�� H����� Hall of it comes down to cooperation, in my opinion.���C�u��4}��ȡAnd that's how you go from a species that started off feebly,���C�u��4�������unremarkably, to one that would��𠢡���become so extraordinary,�� �C�u��4�\�����one ready to explore this planet.�� (C�u@��5�¡��..we follow our ancestors as they spread beyond Africa,���á��taking on extreme environments no others could master...���C�u��5GL�����..travelling beyond the realm of another extraordinary�� 0����� 0species of human - the Hobbit.��xC�u��5g̠ǡ��And eventually, even reaching the distant land of Australia.��C�u��6^������Over 300,000 years ago,�� ����� Africa was the cradle of humanity -���C�u��6|p�����the place where humans evolved,�� ������ �including the first of a new species...�� �C�u��6�ࠛ���..Homo sapiens...��@����� �..our species.���C�u@��6�������From humble beginnings, our growing culture����ȡ�and connections helped us spread across that great continent.��8C�u��6�@�����And then we ventured outwards,�� @����� @away from our home, and into the wider world.���C�u��7UȠġ��Our ancestors did something which is actually remarkable.���������From a beach not unlike this one,���C�u��7vH�����possibly quite close by,�� ������ �they ventured out into an open ocean,�� C�u��7������with only an empty horizon in front of them.��C�u@��7�0�����And after many days and nights on the water,�� �Ρȁ �they eventually came upon this new landmass that they would settle.��xC�u��7�������We call that landmass Australia.�� ������ �It was a pivotal moment in the history of our species.��hC�u��7������But in so many ways, it's not actually the destination��Ƞ�����that's important.���C�u@��7�p�����It is everything it took -��H�����Hall the challenges they had to overcome�� x�á���to make it so far away from where they began, in Africa.��0C�u��8*蠸���We were not the first humans to leave Africa.�� �C�u��8>蠡���Long before we evolved,��Р�����the ancestors of our cousins,��0�����the Neanderthals, set out.���C�u��8Z࠼���And Homo erectus, one of the most ancient humans,��@�����@had made it deep into Asia.�� �C�u��8�������But none had ever made the voyage to Australia.���C�u@��8�Ƞԡ΁Every other species of human reached a point, and then they just stopped.����͡ǁ�They faced a barrier that they either could not or would not pass.���C�u��8������But not us.�� P����� PThis is the story of how, time and again,�� �C�u��8�0�����we took on perilous journeys -�� (����� (how the last species of human to evolve�� �C�u��8�ؠ����took on environments like no others had,�� ������ �to become the only global species of human.��C�u��9������That title is ours and ours alone.���C�u��9Z������This story begins over 120,000 years ago.��XC�u@��9pؠ����As our species spreads beyond the borders of Africa...��ؠ�����..they're blocked by expanses of oceans on most sides.���C�u��9�������One of the few places they can go is east -��Р�����to the vast landmass that today is made up of�� XC�u��9�������Arabia and the Levant...��XC�u��9�@�����..at this time one of the few gateways out of Africa��X�����Xto the rest of the world.��0C�u��:�������Of all the species of human that have ever existed,��Ƞ�����I think we, Homo sapiens,�� �C�u��:������are the explorer species.��H�����HWe can't help it - we have to wander.�� XC�u��:򠠦���It is in our wont to travel.�� ؠ�����And this place was the landmass next door.�� C�u��;H�����You could see it from Africa.�� ������ �And look at it! It is absolutely breathtaking.��`C�u��;6p�����But it's not exactly welcoming.��X�����XNothing about this place says home.�� pC�u��;T������And so, the question is,�������why did Homo sapiens come here?�� �C�u��;z@�����We know they did,��蠸����thanks to finds from Israel and Saudi Arabia,��@C�u��;�h�����to the Gulf States.��hC�u��;������And even beyond - to the fringes of Europe and Asia.���C�u��;�ࠣ���Which is hard to explain,����Ρȁ�when today these lands look just as much of a barrier as any ocean.��C�u@��;���¡��I always say archaeology is a bit like a jigsaw puzzle,����ǡ���and you're just constantly looking for pieces of that puzzle�� �C�u��<(�����to help you get the full picture.���������And this is one of those pieces.�� �C�u@��<-�����This particular piece is���������a copy of a tooth.��p�����Now, it's a single tooth, which gives you an idea���C�u@�� H�����Now, if you look here,��X�����Xthis is a map of the region�� �C�u@��>������just slightly north of here.��ؠ�����So this is Saudi, which is to our east,��X����� 0and that there is the Sinai of Egypt.�� �C�u��>5P�����You can see it's basically shades of beige and grey.��XC�u��>J������Now, look!��࠭����So this is about 125,000 years ago.��xC�u��>e蠧���Water litters this landscape.�� ࠾��� �I mean, you can see the veins just running through.���C�u@��>�h�����There is no way that this land�� ������ �would not have been green.����ȡ�There are paleo lakes and paleo rivers absolutely everywhere.���C�u��>�H�����And this is this region as we have never known it.��C�u��>Р�����Now, remember, this was a world without borders,�������and this was a land of plenty,�� HC�u��>�蠜���within easy reach.��p�����pAnd so why wouldn't Homo sapiens have come here?�� �C�u@��?*𠤡��But what they didn't know,�������what they couldn't have known,��H�����`is that this region would be a trap.�� �C�u��?e`�����The green days of Arabia were numbered.�� 𠦡��The desert was on the march.�� C�u��?�������Subtle variations in the orbit of the Earth�� Р���� �caused the climate to change.�� C�u��?��ǡ��Within as little as a few hundred years, the rains vanished,��@C�u��?�H�����starving this entire region of water...�� Ƞ���� ..leaving humans at the mercy of the desert.���C�u@��@ ؠơ��If you set out to create an environment that was completely�� (����� (and utterly hostile to our biology,��蠢���you'd come up with this.���C�u@��@%h�����The heat is such a presence�� ����� that I can feel it on my back.��H�����hThe sun, even at this time of the morning,�� PC�u��@@ �����feels like it's borderline torture.�� ������And there is no water.�� �C�u��@[������As far as the eye can see, there's nothing.���������And back then, it would've been so much worse.�� �C�u@��@v������It wasn't arid.��x�����xIt's what we call hyper arid.�� ��ġ��It's thought that there was no rainfall for years on end.��C�u��@������And so we go from seeing multiple sites�� H����� Hwhere humans lived in this region, to nothing.���C�u@��@�Ƞ����We seem to vanish for thousands of years.�� �ǡ���And this could so easily have been the end of our journey...��@C�u��@�蠩���..defeated by the harsh desert.�� �C�u��A(�����We think that some Homo sapiens�� ������ �clung on in pockets that we call refugia.�� �C�u��A=h�����Those are refuges where the climate is milder.��ؠ�����But from all we can tell,��XC�u��AS������they would've been few and far between,�� x����� xand they effectively faded away.�� C�u��Am`�����And so, for all intents and purposes,���������Homo sapiens outside of Africa had failed.���C�u@��A�h�����And what's interesting is��Р�����other species of human had cracked�� ������the code of living outside of Africa, but not us.��@C�u��A�x�����And so how did this happen?�� ������ �People like me, so many of you,�� �C�u��Aĸ�����how did we become the only species of human�������who exists across the globe?�� hC�u��A�ؠ����These brutal conditions�� ����� persisted for years on end.�� C�u��B,(�ǡ��Until finally, there was another subtle change in climate...���C�u��BNؠ����..allowing conditions to become less extreme...�� 0C�u��BwȠ����..and giving Homo sapiens another chance.��C�u��B�p�����Occasional seasonal rains returned...�� �C�u��B���ġ��..just enough to bring precious water back to the desert.��8C�u��C������Now, the conditions here did get better.���������So, yes, you had desert and sand dunes...�� C�u��C������..but you also had lakes and rivers.�� ��š���And that resulted in us being able to exist in this place,��pC�u��CF������but not just exist here.�� ����� From an oasis here to a river and spring system there,���C�u��C`������we were able to actually leave the Arabian Peninsula��ࠩ����and face the rest of the world.�� C�u��C�`�ɡÁAs they did, these new waves likely absorbed any small pockets���������of Homo sapiens that had held on.�� �C�u��C�0�����And now scientists studying the genetic code�� ������ �of people alive today believe this moment��0C�u��C������was a pivotal point in our history.�� �C�u@��D࠺���Our DNA has the power to tell stories about us,���������but some of them aren't just stories, they're sagas,�� C�u��D!h�����and they're extraordinary.���������And one of them is that every single one of us��C�u��D9�����whose origins are from outside of Africa�� ����� comes from a tiny population of Homo sapiens.�� �C�u��D[��СʁWe started in Africa, from multiple populations across the continent,���C�u��Dr0�����but then only a small group of us left -��h�����hperhaps as few as 10,000 individuals.��hC�u��D�8�����And so all of us from outside of Africa���������come from this minuscule population,�� �C�u��D�P�����who went on to populate���������not one, not two continents, but five.�� �C�u��D������But our journey through the desert...�� ������..was only one of a multitude of challenges��`C�u��E蠡���Homo sapiens would face�� ����� as we spread across the globe.�� �C�u��E6 �����And because we were so few in number,�� ������ �our very survival outside of Africa��`C�u��EQx�����was far from certain.�� 8C�u��E�ؠ����As this tiny population grew and spread...�� �C�u��E�������..they would crash into another extreme environment.��PC�u��E������One that had defeated all other species of human -��hC�u��E�p�����a vast green wall.�� �C�u��F������Once beyond the desert,���ѡˁour species found themselves in the giant landmass of Europe and Asia.��XC�u��F Р����To their north, lay high, cold mountains.���������So many spread eastwards and south,�� �C�u��F>X�����down through what is now the Indian subcontinent,���������reaching modern-day Sri Lanka,�� �C�u��FV������at that time joined to the mainland�� ������ �by lower sea levels...��C�u��F�P�����..and dominated by expansive dense rainforests.���C�u@��F���ʡāAnd while this may look so much more welcoming than the desert,��8�����8nothing could be further from the truth.�� �C�u��F�@�����These leeches are absolutely everywhere.�� �¡�� �And when I say everywhere, I mean, one has just got me.��PC�u��Gx�����And there are creepy crawlies absolutely everywhere,�������including in our trousers.���C�u��G)X�����And they are actually quite irritating.�� �����xThis place is also full of mosquitoes.�� �C�u��GB������We saw a viper, and a cobra.���������And that's the thing about this place.��pC�u@��GZ������It is difficult to exist in.���������It's hot, it's humid, it's oppressive,�� ������Hand you have to constantly have your wits about you.�� xC�u��G���ơ��This is one of the most extreme environments on the planet.���C�u��G�������So much of what grows here is poisonous to eat...�� �C�u��Gʘ�����..and there are few large animals to provide meat.�� �������Conditions so difficult�� �C�u@��G�P�����that, as far as we can tell,��0�����0no other species of human���������ever made it past the fringes of these rainforests.���C�u@��H�������Being here is a bit like stepping back in time,�� Ƞ���� �because about 50,000 years ago,��������this place would have basically looked the same.�� C�u��H�������This huge cave mouth would've been here.���������Only back then, the rainforest would've been unbroken,���C�u@��H�������and it would've gone on for kilometres�� ������ �in every single direction.�� `������And yet, somehow, in this cave�� �C�u��H�@�����and two other caves not far away,�� ����� we have found evidence of our ancestors living here,���C�u��H������all the way back then,���á��in the heart of what would've been a massive rainforest.���C�u��I'X�ΡȁSo how were Homo sapiens able to plunge into a place no others had?���C�u��IE�����How did they find food - particularly meat?�� C�u@��IZ �á��They did have the advantage of bow-and-arrow technology,�� ����� which had arisen thousands of years earlier.�� hC�u��I(�����But heavy, stone-tipped arrows�� 8�͡ǁ 8were less suited to firing into the high canopy of the rainforest.���C�u��I���ΡȁTheir solution was uncovered thanks to over 30 years of excavations���C�u��I���š��deep into the floor of this - and the two other two caves.���C�u��I�(�����Digs that reach all the way back�� Ƞ���� �to 48,000 years ago,�� �C�u��I�Р����when the pioneers of our species�� �ɡÁ �first attempted to overcome the challenges of this rainforest.���C�u��JP�����Starting with one of the most difficult -�� H����� Hhow to find enough meat to sustain them.�� @C�u��Ji8�����Yeah. So, this here, that's where somebody is cutting?��`�����`- Yeah, yeah.��(C�u��J������- Yeah.��P�����0Yeah. It's funny, because I think butchery marks,�� (C�u@��J�X�ϡɁoften need to look at it through a magnifying glass, but not always.�� P����� PAnd actually, this one is quite clear.��Р���� And this is not the kind of thing that you would see�� �C�u��J�p�����if an animal killed it.�������This is an indication that this is killed by a human.���C�u��J�ؠ����And so the question is how they killed them.��C�u��L�����Right.�������� �So, that chip mark there...��pC�u@�L0�����..shows us that it was actually used. - Yes.�� H����� H- I mean, it's amazing, because this is obviously...���C�u@��L.������I've got in my hands right now���������something that was used 48,000 years ago.���ɡÁx- Of course, of course. - And it was absolutely revolutionary.�� �C�u��LU@�ơ��These bone points are only the tips of the full arrowheads.��hC�u@��Lm𠹡��Many are chipped from actually hitting prey...�� ��֡Ё�..and each one would have been attached to the end of a long wooden arrow.��C�u��L�������These hunters didn't invent a brand-new technology...�� �C�u��L�������..they adapted an old one.��H������These are some of the earliest examples of bow�� �C�u��L�ؠ����and arrows found outside of Africa...�� �C�u��L�H�����..enabling Homo sapiens to hunt����á���with exceptional skill and efficiency within the forest.��HC�u��Ma�����But we know that the humans living here�� 8����� 8were doing more than just surviving.�� C�u��M��š��Oshan and the team also found beads fashioned from shells.���C�u��M���̡ƁPerhaps brought in through trade from groups living on the coast.�� �C�u��M�������A constant struggle to survive...��������8..doesn't leave much time for making works of art..�� �C�u��N`�ѡˁ..suggesting a long-established and successful community existed here.���C�u@��NJX�����And for that, to turn this place into a true home���������would take something fundamental to our species.���C�u��N�������This is...�� ������ �..a replica...��C�u��N�������..of a tool that was found in the caves�� ࠻��� �in this area, dated from about 40,000 years ago.�� �C�u��N���ѡˁIt is a monkey tooth, specifically a canine, but that's been modified.���C�u��N�(�����If you look here, it's been cut into,�� @����� @to create a much sharper point.��pC�u��N�������And the reason for that...��Ƞ���� �..is that it's a tool used for puncturing.���C�u��OX�����Oh.���������It's not easy.��xC�u��OȠ����All right, look, I've finally managed to make a hole.���C�u@��O78�¡��And once you make a hole, you can then use plant fibre,����á���animal sinew, as a string, start stringing animal skins,��(C�u��O]�����animal hide together, and create clothes.�������� HBut actually, in so many ways,�� �C�u@��Ot�����that's not the most interesting thing about this tool.�� ��ˡŁ@Because for me, the most interesting thing is what this tells us��C�u��O�@�����about the minds of the people who have made it.�� ������ �Because you have to be taught how to use it.�� xC�u��O�H�����You have to be taught how to make it.�� (������So it actually tells us something much deeper.�� �C�u��O������Throughout the years humans made this cave their home,�������countless elder generations���C�u��O������would have taught children these techniques.�� �C�u��P `�����Something we still do to this day.��H�ȡ �A communal passing on of knowledge that is key to our ability�� C�u��P)h�����to master so many different environments.�� �C�u��PX �����That engagement, constant engagement,�� @����� @turns every generation of children�� XC�u@��Po������into a step in the evolution of knowledge.�� �ǡ�� And for us Homo sapiens, that's probably what adaptation is,��HC�u��P������the evolution of knowledge,�� `�ˡŁ `because it's what turns a simple projectile like a bow and arrow��@C�u��P���ϡɁinto a weapon fine-tuned, honed, and specialised for the rainforest.���C�u��P���á��And that constant innovation unlocks resources that were��HC�u��P�ؠ����completely out of reach to other species of human.��������Resources like the rainforest.��0C�u@��Q#࠳���And it's this ongoing evolution of tools�� ��ǡ�� �and techniques that has allowed our species, time and again,���C�u��QI�����to live and thrive even in extreme environments.��xC�u��Qq������That is the strength of our species,�� ؠ���� �that we were opening up so many new environments,�� @C�u��Q���ġ��places that previously other species saw as impenetrable,���C�u��Q�h�¡��as too difficult, we saw as having long-term potential,��Р�����and we were able to expand in number,�� (C�u��Q�`�����we were able to then adapt to it.�� ������ �And as we grew, some people would decide to move on���C�u��QҸ�����to yet another environment.�� x�¡�� xWe were becoming a species with truly global potential.���C�u@��R (�ȡIt was that ability to take on so many different, challenging����ǡ���environments that carried us through so much of the world...���C�u��R70�����..by now, to the fringes of Europe...���������..into the cold expanses of northern Asia...�� PC�u��R` �š��..and, within only a few thousand years of leaving Africa,���������deep into Southeast Asia.���C�u��R��ɡÁLower sea levels had created a single region known as Sunda...��(C�u��R�h�ɡÁ..where today there are sweeping stretches of tropical waters.���C�u��R�8�����Our wandering feet brought us to its outer edge.�� �C�u��R�蠽���Beyond lay an ocean, dotted with isolated islands.��HC�u��S��ġ��There are these places that you turn up to and you think,�� @����� @"I'm on the edge of the world."�� �C�u��S.`�����They are incredibly remote and isolated,�� ������ �and this is one of those places.�� `C�u@��SD@�����And it's been like this since the very beginning,���������since its formation,��(����� �because it's been surrounded by this very deep sea,�� �C�u@��S^�����which makes what was found here even more intriguing,���ǡ���because a mind-boggling, completely unexpected human history��hC�u��SP�����plays out here over hundreds of thousands of years.�� �C�u��S�������Even all those years ago,��Р�����the ocean could not stop the spread of our species.�� C�u@��SȘ�ȡWe reached these remote islands, thanks to a technology that,��ؠá���as far as we can tell, we are the only humans to master.�� C�u@��S�(�����This is a tuna fish bone.���������This particular one happens to be quite fresh.��p�����It's a few days old.���C�u@��T�ϡɁBut we have actually found tuna fish bones on an archaeological site�������on these islands that dates back to over 40,000 years.��xC�u��T4��ˡŁBut tuna swim in open waters, and that means that our ancestors,���C�u@��TQx�ˡŁover 40,000 years ago, they were fashioning some kind of vessel,��Ƞ�����and going out into the open waters,�� �C�u��Tl0�����and coming back again, and again, and again.�� �C�u@��T������We can't be sure what form these vessels took,�� P����� Psince no evidence survives,�� �ȡ`but they were probably simple rafts made from available wood.�� C�u��T�(�����And they did more than just help us fish.�� �C�u@��T�ؠ����There is a very interesting archaeological site�� 8�š�� 8on one of the neighbouring islands that has this one layer�� �C�u��T㸠ȡthat is just filled with artefacts belonging to Homo sapiens.�������But the layer just before it,�� C�u@��T�Рѡˁimmediately preceding it, is empty and barren of those same artefacts.���ʡāSo it almost suggests that our ancestors just kind of turned up�� �C�u@��U��ϡɁovernight and spread rapidly through these islands in large numbers,����ˡŁ�just because of the sheer volume of artefacts within that layer.�� �C�u��UC������And none of that would really be possible�� ������ �unless you were skilled enough to build robust craft,�� �C�u��UZx�¡��you were skilled enough to navigate treacherous waters.��8C�u��Uz��ҡ́But in a truly surprising twist, we were not the first to reach Flores.�� C�u��U�������Somehow, someone made it here before us.�� @C�u��U�(�š��Sometimes in this job, you get to fulfil a lifelong dream,�������and one of them is about to happen.�� �C�u@��U��¡��See, there's this cave in palaeoanthropology that isn't�� 0����� 0just fascinating, it's basically explosive.�� HC�u��U�`�����It started in 1950,��@�����@with this one priest called Father Theodor Verhoeven.���C�u@��V@�����Now, back in the day, it was actually quite common����ơ���for priests and missionaries to also dabble in archaeology,�� XC�u��V0�ɡÁso he was out here on Flores looking for archaeological sites.�� ������ �And in talking to locals,��@C�u@��V)�����he got told about this one cave that had potential.�� X�ɡÁ XHe turned up, it was actually being used as an amateur school,���C�u��VE�ȡbut just below the surface, he did actually find archaeology.��0C�u@��V[0�ġ��Actually, it was stone tools belonging to ancient humans.����á���Now, that in of itself is huge, it's really significant,��xC�u��V}h�ȡbut it would take another half a century before we understood��P�����Pjust how important this cave was.�� �C�u@��V֠�¡��For over 20 years, a joint Indonesian and international�� h�¡�� hteam of archaeologists has been excavating these caves.���C�u��V� �����They had been searching for evidence of the spread�� ����� of Homo sapiens through the islands.��HC�u@��W������Instead, they found something completely unexpected...�� ������..a strange skeleton from at least 70,000 years ago.���C�u��W5P�á��So long before our species reached this far from Africa.���C�u��WQ �����I think the first thing obviously that strikes you�� ����� when you see her is that she's very short.�� C�u��Wk������Um, what are we talking, one metre?��XC�u��W�࠹���Right, so about three and a half feet? - Yeah.�� C�u��Wو�����- It's got wisdom teeth. - Yes.����ȡ�- Yeah. I mean, the molars are... The adult molars are there.�� (C�u��W�Ƞ����Yeah, yeah, yeah.���������As soon as you look closely, this is 100% an adult.�� ࠗ����- Yeah. Yeah.��PC�u��Xؠ����- An adult, but the size of a child.��`�����`And that was only the first surprise.���C�u��X=�����The legs, they're quite short. - Yeah.�� �C�u��X^Р����- Whereas, with us...������� xOur legs are really long...��������8..compared to arms.���C�u��Xx������Yeah.������� PYup.��PC�u��X�X�����Which is huge... - Is huge, yes.�������- ..because on me that would be about that length.�� �C�u@��X��ˡŁI mean, this is one of those moments in the history of the field�� Ƞ���� �where I just wish I had been there.�� �C�u��YРɡÁI know she's a replica, but she's a replica of the real thing,�� ������ �and, yeah, it's...��8C�u��Y������It's giving me goose bumps.��PC�u��Y?Р����This new species of human was a revelation.�� @�����HNamed Homo floresiensis, after the island,�� hC�u@��Y]��ȡthey quickly became known to many as "the hobbits," after the����̡Ɓ�heroes from the Lord of the Rings, who were also small as adults.��`C�u@��Y�(�š��It's likely they arrived entirely by chance. Perhaps a few��8�ϡɁ8individuals swept here on driftwood from the islands to the north...��C�u��Y�H�����..more than 700,000 years ago.�� C�u@��Y������Eventually becoming a unique species,�� ؠˡŁ �seemingly with a mix of modern and more ancient characteristics.��@C�u��Z蠸���Now, we can see obviously the brain is small,�� ������ �but how small are we talking?���C�u��Z;8�����That... - That's right. - How incredible.�� �C�u��ZR������Such a small brain, and yet they had stone tools.���C�u��Zq��ϡɁBefore this, scientists assumed that a human with such a small brain��C�u��Z�������could never have developed such tools.��H������One theory is that they were initially a much larger�� hC�u@��Z��á��species, before the long isolation on Flores caused them�� ������ �to shrink, a process known as island dwarfism,��xC�u@��Z�P�¡��where large animals get smaller due to fewer resources.��p�ġ��pAt the same time, some small animals actually get bigger,���C�u��Z츠����due to a lack of predators.���C�u@��[;x�ơ��So Stegodons generally are not the size of water buffaloes.�� ������- Exactly, yeah. - But on this island...���C�u@��[S�͡ǁ- It's big one. - ..they're the size of a water buffalo. - Yeah.��H�ΡȁH- And then on this island, you've got humans that are a metre tall.�� �����H- Yeah, that small.���C�u��[j��ġ��- What you're describing there is a species that has been���������shaped by this island, has been���C�u��[��̡Ɓshaped by the environment on this island, and the result is this.���C�u��[�x�����Long isolation allowed evolution to tailor the hobbit��ࠞ����to this environment.���C�u��[� �����Their long arms, compared to short legs,�� (����� (a response to perhaps the steep terrain,�� XC�u��[ࠠá��or the lack of predators on the island to run away from.�� �C�u@��[��ʡāPhysical adaptations that, along with those simple stone tools,����ǡ���helped them survive here for hundreds of thousands of years.��hC�u��\AX�����You can see, it's like layers of cake. - Yes.�� P����� P- So every period has left a layer.���C�u��\Xx�����So this is like a snapshot in time, telling us�� @����� @a lot about different periods.�� �C�u��\�(�����That's basically flow from volcanic eruption?�� ������ �- Yeah.��C�u��\�P�����- Mm-hm.��`C�u��\�(�����Right.���C�u��]h�����Right.���C�u��]4P�����So Homo sapiens.���C�u@��]aP�����That's really significant.�������So the pyroclastic flow is when you have the gas��蠼��� �and material that comes from a volcanic eruption,��pC�u��]w��ġ��and really, I mean, that would just be quite destructive.�� ����� - Yeah.���C�u��]������- We don't think that that final eruption alone caused�� ������ �the extinction of the hobbits.�� C�u@��]Ѩ�ġ��It would have been a catastrophic event here at the cave,�� H�ġ�� Hbut we don't know how it affected the rest of the island.�� C�u��]�0�ʡāWhat we do know is that this shows the time of the hobbits here�� H����� Hwas coming to an end.�� C�u@��^�̡ƁSo you're looking at actually quite a different world down there,�� @����� @to up there. Yeah. - Exactly, yes, exactly.��HC�u��^h��ġ��- This tiny island has been home to two species of human.�� �C�u��^�ؠ����One remains to this day.��@����� �One vanished long ago.��C�u��^��ҡ́It is wonderful to imagine what this place was like before all of this.��pC�u@��^������Thousands of years before our ancestors, you had these���ʡā�miniature elephant-like creatures who wandered open grasslands.���C�u��_p�ǡ��You had actual dragons, the Komodo dragons, who still exist.���C�u��_-�ȡAnd then giant marabou storks - storks that were carnivorous,���C�u��_B������that were my height or taller, and could fly.�� ������ �It was like a fantasy island.��pC�u��_W������And amongst all of it,��ȠΡȁ�there were these humans who were tiny, who came up to about my hip.���C�u@��_}�ǡ��And those hobbits lived here on this island for a staggering�� ��á�� �length of time, potentially for more than 700,000 years,���C�u��_�������longer than we've existed as a species.�� �C�u@��_�`�����And yet, there is this twist, because so far,�� ������ �we have found no evidence of them past these shores.���C�u��_� �š��Their whole story plays out only on this island of Flores.���C�u@��_�`�����Our own species, in just a fraction of that time,�� Р���� �was able to spread across a huge portion of the globe.��pC�u��`?��͡ǁAround 50,000 years ago, the climate here became warmer and drier,��H�����Hchanging the environment.��pC�u��`d��ʡāAt the same time, those violent volcanic eruptions also struck.���C�u��`���ɡÁWhatever the reason, it meant that Homo floresiensis faced not��P�����Pjust change, but rapid change.�� �C�u@��`�@�ȡThat meant that their physiology, their physical adaptations,��8�����8that for so long had been a benefit, were now a trap.��pC�u@��`��ȡThey were being left behind, because it's actually incredibly�� p�ǡ�� pdifficult to rapidly evolve your way out of a sudden crisis.��(C�u@��`���ǡ��And they couldn't behaviourally adapt to this change either.����¡���Nor could they, say, escape and move to another island.�� �C�u��a�СʁAnd so these wonderful, fantastic relatives of ours vanished forever.��0C�u��a3 �ɡÁAnd in their place, Homo sapiens appeared, making this island,�������like so many places, their home.�� hC�u��aq�ˡŁSo far, we've found no evidence that our two species overlapped.���C�u��a���ġ��But for many, the final factor in the hobbit's extinction��8�����8is likely our sudden arrival.���C�u��a� �����The hobbit simply couldn't compete��X�����Xwith this highly adaptable newcomer...���C�u��a�P�����..a species able to change its behaviour�� ������ �to suit almost any environment and condition.�� �C�u��b��ӡ́The very characteristics driving our continuing spread across the globe.��C�u@��bG������As we spread further and further away from Africa,�� 𠮡�� �entering into brand-new environments��0����� that we had never experienced before,�� C�u��bf𠴡��we're not just surviving in these places,��𠬡���we're actually setting down roots.�� �C�u��b�ؠ����And roots that would last us till this very day.�� �C�u��b�������There was one last part of this journey to go.�� C�u��b�8�ǡ��We set out on a path no other human species had travelled...���C�u��b򠠯���..perhaps following tantalising hints��p�����pthat there was more land to explore.���C�u��cȠ����Clouds on the horizon, returning flights of birds...���C�u@��c, �ġ��..or maybe something much more instinctive that inspired,����ơ���we think, dozens of families to strike out on a voyage that��C�u��c[𠰡��would carry them to a new continent...��������p..Australia.��`C�u��c�P�ġ��Now, these were people who were comfortable on the water,�� P����� Pthey were going from island to island,�� �C�u��c�P�����but Australia was something different.�� h����� hWe're talking about a journey that was up to 100km,���C�u��c�������60 miles.�� (����� (That's days and nights on the open ocean,�� HC�u��c��ʡāprobably in something as basic as a raft that was perhaps being��xC�u��c�x�����propelled and steered with just paddles.�� �C�u��c�������Launching out into that hostile and expansive ocean,���C�u��d�¡��that would be an expedition today, let alone back then.���C�u@��d2x�����When I think about the risk involved,�� ��ϡɁ �when I think about the emptiness, it is just absolutely astonishing.���C�u��d�(�����The islands of Indonesia were another waypoint�� X����� Xin our ongoing journey.��xC�u��d���̡ƁOur unique adaptability that helped us cross the harsh deserts...�� C�u��d�8�����..and break through the barrier of the rainforest...�� (C�u��d� �����..now carried us practically to the ends of the Earth.��(C�u��e Ƞ����To Australia, around 9,000 miles from where we began.��(C�u��e)0�¡��Which does beg the question, what kept driving us on...�� C�u��e=��Ρȁ..ultimately inspiring us to take on the dangers of the open ocean?��hC�u��e]�����It's true that there will often have been a push.�� 0������The simple need to find new resources�� �C�u��exh�����for our expanding population.�� `C�u@��e� �á��But I would argue that that is not the full explanation,��P�����Pthat this is the most intangible part of the story.�� HC�u@��e�������See, these people, in my opinion, were just like us,�� ��á�� �so they had the same fears and hopes for their families.�� �C�u��eΨ�����We are clearly the explorer species.���������I think that is beyond a doubt.���C�u��e������And, as a result,��h�ϡɁhwe have been able to take on things that seem absolutely impossible.���C�u@��fp�����In that desire to understand what was out there,�� ��š�� �in the thrill and excitement of understanding the unknown,�� �C�u��f ������and the willingness to take risk to know it.�������See, wanderlust, creativity�� C�u@��f;��͡ǁand the imagination required to put yourself in a different place,����ϡɁ�into a different future and world, I think that is fundamentally us.��(C�u��f�X�ʡāWe chart the spread of Homo sapiens into the expanses of Europe��8C�u��g��͡ǁas our species struggles to survive in the grip of a cruel Ice Age���C�u��g(�Сʁand comes face-to-face with another sophisticated species of human...���C�u��g9x�Ρȁ..the Neanderthals, who had long mastered life in these cold lands.��pC�u@��g{�ΡȁIn this episode, we filmed at a place I've long dreamt of visiting,����ǡ���one of the most important human archaeological sites of all,��hC�u��g�蠛���Liang Bua cave...����ʡā X..where scientists are still trying to solve the many mysteries�� �C�u��g�Рǡ��surrounding the hobbits, the ancient humans that lived here.��(C�u��gɈ�����In 2004, their discovery sent shock waves through�� h����� hthe scientific community.��hC�u��g�X�����- So, the moment the paper's dropped, it was massive.��PC�u@��g�������It was all over the news.��ؠ�����It was all over the internet.��h����� @Everyone was talking about this tiny,��ࠫ��� unexpected hobbit from Indonesia.��0C�u��h �����- Paige has known Thomas and the team since 2017,�� H����� Hdocumenting their research.���C�u��h:������Like many scientific breakthroughs,���������the initial discovery created intense controversy.�� �C�u@��hXР����- The conferences got extremely heated.��H�ɡÁHSometimes there would be hobbit sessions where within the same�� �C�u@��hnؠ̡Ɓsession, you would have a few talks would be sort of pro hobbit -��8�����8so, "This is a new species, this is really exciting,�� XC�u@��h�h�����this is changing a lot of what we thought we knew���������about human evolution" -�������� 0and then in the same session,�������0you would have people that are saying,��C�u��h�������"This is the biggest mistake�������"that human evolution scientists have ever made."�� PC�u@��h������- Many argued that this was not a new species,�� ��͡ǁ �but a Homo sapiens suffering from an illness that caused its small��(C�u@��h�蠫���physical features and brain size.����ϡɁ �Eventually that was discounted, and Homo floresiensis was recognised��C�u��h���ѡˁas a new species of human - raising, if anything, even more questions.���C�u@��i������- We still don't know, for example,�� �¡�� where they came from or who they're closely related to.�� @�ɡÁ`So that question of the origins of Homo floresiensis is still,�� �C�u��i>Р����I would say, almost completely an open one.�� �C�u��iYؠ����- It's possible they evolved from another ancient�� x����� xspecies of human, such as Homo erectus,���C�u��is�ǡ��which we know was in the area just over a million years ago.�� HC�u��i�������Perhaps carried to the island by chance,���������and then shrunk down over many years of isolation.�� �C�u��i�`�����But there is an even more controversial idea.�� �C�u��i��š��- If you look really hard at a lot of the characteristics,�� ������ �particularly below the cranium...��C�u@�i�(�����..you see that this is a creature����ˡŁ�that looks a lot more like some of our really ancient ancestors,�� pC�u@��i�X�����more than two million years old, in Africa.�� (�ɡÁpAnd so maybe there was an exodus out of Africa a million years�� C�u��j 蠦���before we thought there was.��X������- This current dig might reveal the answer.��HC�u@��j+`�����With help from the Max Planck Institute in Germany,�� ��š�� �researchers are trying to collect fragments of hobbit DNA.��xC�u@��jL������- Ancient DNA is really helpful at really laying out�� �ơ�� relationships for us between different species across time.��XC�u@��jkp�ʡāAnd so, because of the way that mutations accumulate over time,��ؠ�����it allows us to kind of work backwards�� C�u@��j�H�ǡ��and trace back when some of those lineages would have split.�� Рġ���Homo floresiensis, and whoever their closest ancestor is,�� 0C�u��j� �����which is not a question we can answer until we kind of�� 𠨡�� �have some of that information.��@C�u��j�H�͡ǁ- The problem is successfully finding hobbit DNA will not be easy.���C�u��j��̡Ɓ- Normally it would be impossible to recover DNA from a situation�� ����� where it's this hot.���C�u��j𸠢���It's just too difficult.������� PDNA degrades really rapidly, and other things move in�� �C�u��k��á��and muddy up the signal, like bacteria and other things.�� ࠩ����But in this cave in particular,���C�u��k�ʡāit is at a slightly higher altitude than a lot of Indonesia is,�������it's right up in the mountains,��@C�u@��k4`�ǡ��and so it is a little bit cooler than most equatorial areas.����ȡ�And so there is a little bit of hope that we might be able to�� C�u@��kP0�����get a little bit of a signal from the species.�� �͡ǁ�- If successful, we might finally solve the mystery of the hobbit.��0C�u@��kz8�ʡāWhatever happens, Homo floresiensis will remain one of the most�� ��¡�� �important and unexpected discoveries of recent history.���C�u��ltؠ����LABOURED BREATHING���������CRY OF PAIN��(C�u��l�������GRUNTING��C�u��l�X�����GROANING�������� hBABY CRIES��C�u��l��ѡˁAround 30,000 years ago, a child was born into a new and lonely world.���C�u��l�X�����They were the first child to be born onto a planet�� Ƞ���� �in which we were quite alone.���C�u��m*h�̡ƁThis was the first time in history that only one species of human��@�����@walked this Earth.��xC�u��mGx�����All the others were now gone.�������� �And in a tale written by the sole survivors,���C�u��m]�����it's actually quite easy to forget�� ����� that we weren't destined to be the only ones.�� 0C�u��mrH�����And yet here we are.��ؠ����How this happened is one of the most poignant chapters��8C�u@��m�������in the human story.�������And it's one that's etched into the DNA�� `�����xof every single one of us alive today.�� hC�u��m�࠭���For hundreds of thousands of years,�� ����� Homo sapiens evolved in Africa.�� xC�u��nȠȡ60,000 years ago, one group dispersed into the Middle East...���C�u��n6ؠ����..and continued onwards as far as Australia.���C�u��nM�����But our ancestors didn't stop there.���C�u��nh��š��Another group began to make their way north into Europe...�� 0C�u��n�Ƞ����..where their story continues.���C�u��nɐ�ҡ́For thousands of years, Europe had been out of reach to Homo sapiens...���C�u��n�(�����..repelled by its icy climate.��0C�u��o������But now a shift in conditions opened up a route��(�����(into this new realm.���C�u��o1������And some of our ancestors left the familiar behind...��@C�u��oQР����..and stepped into the unknown.��pC�u��oz �����We don't really know why they came.�� ����� Was it a romantic notion, like pure curiosity?��0C�u@��o�h�ˡŁOr was it something much more practical? Say, the need for food.��ؠȡ�Or perhaps it was the same forces that drive migrants today -���C�u��o� �����that need for shelter and safety.��pC�u@��o�(�����We don't know the exact routes they took,�� ��ϡɁ �but by following rivers, coasts, or wandering across mountain ranges��pC�u��o�H�����like these, they found their way into this new world.��XC�u��p.������But not long after these migrants reached Europe...�� C�u��pI(�����..they would have encountered something unexpected.�� �C�u��pcࠝ���When they got here,���ϡɁthey would have discovered that another species had beat them to it.���C�u@�p�Ƞ����Two other human species were widespread at the time.�� X������To the east, from Siberia to Southeast Asia,�� HC�u��pې�����lived the mysterious Denisovans,�� ����� known only to us from DNA�� PC�u��p�������preserved in a few fossil fragments.�� C�u@��q 0�����Across lands to the west, all the way from Russia��x�¡��xto the Atlantic coast of Europe, were the Neanderthals.�� �C�u@��qB8�����Homo sapiens were latecomers to Europe.�� ��ȡ�It had been home to the Neanderthals for almost 400,000 years��pC�u��qcX�����before we showed up.��ؠơ��Now these Homo sapiens venturing into Europe would have met��0C�u��q�������another sort of human.��hC�u��q�ȠɡÁPeople who looked a lot like us, but with obvious differences.���C�u��q�ؠ̡ƁWe can only imagine what our ancestors would have made of them...��PC�u��q������..when our two cultures - perhaps just two families...���C�u��r ������..encountered each other for the first time.�� C�u��rw �����Neanderthals were close relatives of Homo sapiens,���C�u��r�РϡɁbut we had evolved along separate branches of the human family tree.��8C�u��r���ǡ��There's often this belief that we evolved from Neanderthals,��X�����Xso we came from Neanderthals.��hC�u@��r�������Actually, that's incorrect.�������We shared a common ancestor with them.�������� �And then, due to chance and the environment,���C�u@��r�Рǡ��we went on these two really different evolutionary journeys.�������So, we evolved - Homo sapiens - for Africa.�� �C�u��r�Ƞ����We ended up taller and leaner.���������Now, the Neanderthals evolved for much cooler,��`C�u��s蠣���more wooded environments.��hC�u@��s#P�����So they were shorter -��Ƞ�����on average, they were about 5'5" -�������� Hthey had bigger torsos, but shorter limbs.�� C�u��sF������They used a lot of brute force...�� 8�����P..because they were close-range hunters.��HC�u@��ss�����The Neanderthals were masters of their environment -�� ��š�� �they had evolved here for hundreds of thousands of years -�� @C�u��s�࠳���whereas we turn up and we're immigrants,�� 𠭡�� �we are ill-equipped and unprepared.�� �C�u@��s�P�ʡāIf you were going to place a bet on who would be left standing,�� �̡Ɓ �you'd probably bet on the obvious choice - and it wouldn't be us.��`C�u��sԨ�ɡÁThe Neanderthals had found a way to thrive here for millennia.���C�u��t������Yet in the 19th century,�������when the first Neanderthal fossils were unearthed...�� �C�u��t!ؠ����..we quickly made assumptions...���C�u��t6Ƞ����..that have persisted ever since.���������As a result, Neanderthals haven't had the best PR.���C�u@��tb8�ϡɁIf somebody calls you a Neanderthal, it's probably not a compliment.�������And that stereotype of Neanderthals has been with us�� �C�u@��t������since the very beginning.��@�ġ��@And it kind of suited us to see ourselves as the pinnacle�� �ġ��`of evolution, and them as these knuckle-dragging ape men.��C�u@��t���͡ǁBut partly, that stereotype is actually just a mistake of science.��Р¡���Palaeoanthropology at the time was quite a new science,�� �C�u@��t�(�ȡand when they came to reconstruct this one Neanderthal called�� ��ơ�� �La Chapelle-aux-Saints, they portrayed it as kind of really�� HC�u@�t��á��hunched over and knuckle-dragging, which was just wrong.�� ������ �This kind of brutish, hairy Neanderthal,��`C�u@��t���ɡÁlooking like it's about to attack, it's incredibly aggressive.�� 蠶��� �And then Hollywood pick up this stereotype.�� (C�u��u �����Some of these images are so ridiculous.��H����� �Very monkey-like Neanderthals.�� �C�u��u%������That impression of Neanderthals just solidifies.�� 𠩡���I personally love Neanderthals,��0C�u��u>��ġ��and the more we learn about them, the more we study them,��ؠ�����the more we discover about them,��XC�u��uT��ʡāthe more we realise that this is actually incredibly incorrect.�� �C�u��u�ؠá��This now outdated image of the simple brutish caveman is��蠣����finally being replaced...��xC�u��u�x�����..with a picture of a once vibrant, thriving culture.���C�u@��uҨ�á��There may be no Neanderthals left to tell their story...�� ࠷���h..but thanks to the traces they left behind,�� �C�u��u��ʡāwe can begin to imagine people who aren't so different from us.��pC�u��vؠ����We keep finding things at Neanderthal sites�� `����� `that really challenge us.��xC�u@�v+@�����Things like beaded shells with pigmentation on them,�� 0����� 0almost like they're being used as necklaces.�� C�u��vEX�����Eagle talons that have been polished down.�� ������ �And then there's my actual favourite, which is���C�u��vb������evidence of feathers.���������But not just any feathers.��(����� �No, the Neanderthals seem to be really���C�u��vv�ȡinterested in iridescent feathers from things like red kites.���������And you've got to wonder,��0C�u@��v�Ƞá��why were they so interested in those particular colours?��Ƞ�����And it's presumably because they're high value.���C�u��v�`�����They're beautiful.��P�̡ƁHYou kind of have an impression of them as having these incredible�� PC�u��v���Сʁheaddresses or maybe cloaks made of these brilliant, bright feathers.��(C�u��v�`�����When you put this all together,�������you paint a picture of a Neanderthal, not as this�� �C�u@��v��ʡāaggressive creature standing behind a rock with a massive club,�� �ϡɁ but actually as these beings very interested in adorning themselves.���C�u��w������Interested in looking beautiful with necklaces�� ������ �and gorgeous coloured headdresses.�� `C�u��wJ �����Suddenly you're looking at beings who aren't just�� X����� Xinterested in food and shelter -���C�u@��w_8�ġ��they're interested in the way they are seen by the world.�� �����xThis - all this - makes them tangibly human.��`C�u��w�������For generations, Homo sapiens and Neanderthals lived�� ������ �near one another.���C�u��w�������But how close were we?���C�u��w�𠲡��For decades, most assumed interbreeding�� ������ �between our two species didn't happen.�� �C�u��x ��á��But in the early 2000s, this was called into question...��`C�u��x+H�����..with the chance discovery of fossil fragments...�� �C�u��xQh�š��..which revealed humans with a mysterious mix of features.��XC�u��x}�����It even smells like a fossil.�� ������This, I assume, is Oase 1.�� C�u��x������- This one is Oase 1.�������� - And that's Oase 2. - Skull. That's Oase 2.�� �C�u��x�������- This is quite special because I've read about them.�� p����� pI've studied them.��0C�u��x�@�����They're hugely significant fossils,���������but I've never seen the originals.�� �C�u@��xӸ�����I've never been this close to them. It's...�� P����� P- We excavated for two years.��࠿���0We unearthed, like, more than 10,000 fossil remains,���C�u��x�������mostly cave bear, but also Oase 2.�� H����� HAnd it looks and it is modern Homo sapiens. - Yeah.���C�u@��y��ơ��- But it has some features which are more like Neanderthal.���������- Yeah. - Like this one. It's quite clear.���C�u@��y0`�����It's a mandible of a modern human with this chin.�� ������ �- Cos there's a chin. - Yeah, a chin.��`�����Yeah. - And Neanderthals don't have a chin.��@C�u��yF������Neanderthals' chin kind of recedes.���������- But then you see the size of the molars... - Yeah.�� C�u@��yZ��á��- ..which are really huge. - More a Neanderthal feature.�� ������ �- Modern sapiens, but with Neanderthal teeth.���C�u��yv������Yeah, Oase 2 has the same hybrid features. - Mm-mm.��(�����(- Like if you look at the face.���C�u@��y���á��- You look at that and you do think that's Homo sapiens.����̡Ɓ�And then it has these features on it, which are more Neanderthal.��hC�u@��y�������Like this occipital bun here at the back,��࠴����that bulge at the back of the skull here.��p�����P- Yeah, that's kind of strange.�� hC�u@��y�X�á��It's not a Neanderthal, but it has Neanderthal features,���š��which prompt us to think about some sort of interbreeding.�� HC�u��y������Neanderthal, Homo sapiens interbreeding.�� ������ �It was pretty controversial.�� 8C�u@��y�𠴡��- People thought it either didn't happen,��X�����Xbecause we were too genetically distinct.�������`- People were just not ready to accept that.�� C�u��zh�����Interbreeding is not something uncommon in biology.���������It happens with other species.���C�u��z0P�����At that time, it was somehow taboo.���C�u��zT�š��- Around a decade later came a revolutionary breakthrough.��(C�u��zm@�š��Advances in genetic analysis allowed scientists to extract�������DNA from ancient fossils...�� �C�u��z��ˡŁ..proving these two species could - and did - produce offspring.���C�u@�z�ؠ����How did it feel to be proven right, to be vindicated,��x�����xespecially over something so controversial?�� 8C�u��z�������- We felt relieved. - Yeah.�� ������ �- Like, "OK.��C�u��z�(�����"Now you know."��@����� xYeah, we were happy to be right.��������- Yeah.���C�u��{�����How many generations ago was the Neanderthal ancestor?�� 蠰��� �- We now know that this individual had�� C�u��{�ɡÁa Neanderthal ancestor somewhere back four to six generations.���C�u��{.ؠѡˁ- One of the great-great-grandparents, potentially, was a Neanderthal.�� ������ �- Something like that.���C�u@��{C�ˡŁ- You know, people spend their whole lives - their WHOLE lives -���������trying to find a fossil as significant as this, and...��xC�u��{j�����Wow, it's just amazing.��xC�u��{�h�ɡÁSince the discovery of Oase 1, evidence has continued to grow,��PC�u��{�������proving hybrids like this were not just possible,�� ������ �but may have been relatively common.�� �C�u@��{�h�ˡŁWe'll never know the full story of Oase 1 and the other hybrids,����ġ���and to be honest, we'll never know the full circumstances�� �C�u@��{�������under which they were conceived.�� �Ρȁ For all we know, it could have been nonconsensual, or it could have�� 0C�u@��{�H�����been the result of a romantic notion like love,�� ��á�� �or it might have been the result of a practical decision�� C�u��| �����like as part of a trade agreement.���C�u��|������But whatever it was,��H�á��Hwhat must it have been like to have been a hybrid child,��`C�u@��|5X�ʡāto have had a parent or grandparent or great-great-grandparent,����Ρȁ�not just from a different race, but a completely different species?��`C�u��|f@�����Did these children feel like they belonged,���������or were they teased and ostracised?�� �C�u��|�p�����We'll never know, but what we do know,�� ��á�� �because I held Oase 1 in my hands, is that they existed.��8C�u@��|�(�����And so somebody loved them,��h�����hand somebody was raising them to adulthood.�� �����pAnd so we tangibly know that the Neanderthals�� hC�u��|��š��and the Homo sapiens, they didn't just meet - they joined.��PC�u@��|�0�����We now know that, for a time at least, Homo sapiens�� �¡�� and Neanderthals managed to live alongside one another.�� �C�u��} �ѡˁBut a global change would push both species to the limits of survival.���C�u��}[��š��It's likely Homo sapiens arrived here during a brief thaw.��C�u��}vp�����And by doing so, they had walked into a trap.��@C�u��}������Europe was plunged into winter.����̡Ɓ Unrecognisable to us today, it became a barren and hostile world.���C�u��}�������Rainfall in some areas fell to half its modern level.��C�u��~������And much of the continent became tundra.�� ����� A vast, inhospitable plain.���C�u��~P������All of a sudden, Homo sapiens were confronted by�� ����� a completely different world.��XC�u��~tР����Frozen, relentless,�� ࠡ��� �and utterly unexpected.�� C�u@��~�`�����There's no way for them to have known it,���������but before the first Homo sapiens arrived,�� �¡���most of Europe would have been in the depths of winter.�� �C�u��~�0�����Ice sheets like this one would have spread from here�� ������ �all the way down to Britain.���C�u�� ؠ����Homo sapiens evolved in Africa,�� ��ˡŁ �so these conditions would have been completely shocking to them.���C�u��*�����It's currently minus eight degrees.�� h����� hI am wearing so many layers, it's actually ridiculous.���C�u��Gp�����And yet, I am still completely miserable.�� ����� It is so cold, I can't feel parts of my face.�� �C�u��c������These families, they were here�� x����� xand they were trying to keep young children alive.�� �C�u��z������These conditions would have been life-threatening.�� �C�u���p�����But while Homo sapiens weren't adapted for the cold...�� �C�u��ʈ�����..Neanderthals had evolved to survive brutal�� 𠫡�� �winters for almost 400,000 years.�� �C�u���������They knew where to shelter and hunt for scarce food.�� pC�u�烀������But survival was also in their biology.�� 0C�u�烀9�ϡɁIt's thought they evolved to store more brown fat than Homo sapiens.���C�u�烀N������This burns more calories and generates heat,�� ����� conserving energy in the cold.�� `C�u�烀y`�ġ��And larger nasal passages acted like natural radiators...��xC�u�烀��Ρȁ..warming and moistening the icy air before it reached their lungs.��C�u�烀���ǡ��When the going got tough, Neanderthals were built to endure.��xC�u@�烀�ؠ����Without the Neanderthals' adaptations or knowledge,�� H�¡�� Hthese early European Homo sapiens would have been doing��xC�u�烁������everything they could just to cling on.�� @C�u�烁<ؠ����And yet the bitter cold was just the beginning.�� �C�u�烁j�ˡŁThis glacier is the remnant of an ice sheet that's incrementally��ࠩ����grown and shrunk for millennia.�� 8C�u�烁�h�����Deep within are clues about the world our ancestors�� ����� would have found themselves in.��pC�u@�烁�(�����- We're working in mountain glaciers like Folgefonna�� �ˡŁ �because we can use the evidence of how the glaciers have changed�� �C�u�烁������in the past to understand how they behaved�� ؠ���� �in response to climate change.�� �C�u@�烁���š��Many of the places we live in now, where I live in Bergen,��H�¡��Hwould have been underneath a kilometre of ice. - Yeah.�� x�¡���I mean, there were times when Britain was part of that.�� (C�u@�烂������- The ice sheet came as far south as about Birmingham.�� ������ �- Birmingham, my own hometown. There we go!�� �C�u@�烂<��ġ��- So, this is where we're drilling the ice core. - Yeah.���������So, it's manual drilling? - Yes, exactly.��H�͡ǁ�And there's blades at the bottom that are cutting through the ice.��pC�u@�烂Tؠ¡��- How tough is that? - It can be quite hard work. Yeah.�� ������ �And then we lift it out, and we bring it over here.�� �C�u@�烂y�����We can see... - Look at that.���ǡ��- If we hold it up to the light, we can see the air bubbles.�� (�ơ��0- So basically, this is effectively a time capsule. - Yes.�� �C�u�烂������And this is young ice from Folgefonna glacier.�� (C�u@�烂���ȡBut if this was from Greenland and it was deep, old ice core,�� H�ġ�� Hthose air bubbles would tell us about what the atmosphere�� �C�u�烂�x�����was like in the past.��Ƞơ��(We can look at what we see from the ice cores in Greenland.�� �C�u@�烂ݐ�����And this shows us how the climate��Ƞ͡ǁ�changed through that period in the North Atlantic region. - Yeah.�� Р�����- There was a relatively cold���C�u@烂�������but stable climate from 70,000 to 60,000 years ago.�� ������ �And then between 60,000 and 30,000 years ago,�� `C�u@�烃�Сʁthe climate in this region jumped by eight to ten degrees warmer over��`�����`maybe one or two decades. - That's quite a lot.���C�u@�烃*H�����- It's huge. It's huge.��(�����(And that cycle is repeated all through that period.�� Ƞ�����And then it cooled again and then jumped.���C�u@�烃C �����And this carried on.�������And we see then a cold, but slightly more stable,�� (�����8climate before we then warm into the present day.�� �C�u@�烃`Р����- I mean, how do you exist���ǡ��if the climate changes like that in such an extreme fashion?�� �������- Well, it's very challenging.���C�u@�烃x�á��It's maybe not even possible because everything you know�� ������ �about how to live, how to raise children,�� xC�u@�烃�P�̡Ɓbecomes in 10-20 years... - Yeah. Obsolete. - ..totally changes.�� h����� h- Yeah, yeah, yeah. - Totally changes.��0C�u�烃�X�����- Entire ecosystems collapsed.�� �C�u�烃������Forests became barren plains.�� 8C�u�烃������Lakes dried up.��ؠ�����And rivers froze over.��XC�u�烄1������The real enemy wasn't cold.��p�����It was chaos.��PC�u�烄_�����As landscapes shifted, herds of animals disappeared.��xC�u�烄�Ƞ����And sources of food grew scarce.���C�u�烄�8�����People were driven into unfamiliar territories��8�����8and forced to compete for what little remained.�� �C�u�烄�P�����It was a brutal time to be alive.�� C�u@�烄��ʡāImagine what it would be like for our ancestors to live in this�������world where the land of their grandparents was not�� �C�u�烅�����the land of their grandchildren.��蠿����And when that happens, intergenerational knowledge -�� �C�u@�烅Рơ��knowledge that's passed on from one generation to the next,�� X�á�� Xthat's so important for survival in these environments -���C�u@�烅5������suddenly that knowledge isn't actually very useful����Ρȁ�because the plants, the animals, the landscape, it's all different.���C�u�烅e��ȡTo survive, each generation had to discover the world anew...��xC�u�烅�������..roaming further in search of dwindling resources�� ������ �that might not be there.���C�u@烅�8�ǡ��Homo sapiens and Neanderthals would have been forced to find�� H����� Hshelter wherever they were able to...���C�u�烅ਠȡ..seeking refuge in the few habitable places they could find.��xC�u�烆9�����55,000 years ago,�� x�š�� xthe south of France was still in the thick of the Ice Age.�� �C�u@�烆a������Yet, compared to the deep freeze of the north, it was����͡ǁ�one of the more bearable places in an otherwise hostile landscape.���C�u�烆�������And here at Grotte Mandrin...������� ..archaeologists have spent over three decades�� �C�u�烆�������unearthing its secrets...��h�����h..layer by layer...���C�u�烆�Рš��..revealing a place that was home to Neanderthals for more��(�����(than 80,000 years.���C�u�烆�������Shoes off. - Yes. - There we go.�� �C�u�烇j������Yeah.��8C�u�烇������Uh-huh.���C�u�烇������So, what you're seeing here is phases of occupation�� ����� over 80,000 years. - Yeah.�� C�u�烇��¡��- And because you've got incredible resolution, you can�� 𠡡�� �really hone in on that.���C�u�烈X�����Each layer has preserved a moment in time.�� �C�u@�烈Ƞ����And from the treasures buried within,�� �ɡÁ it's possible to piece together different chapters of history.��PC�u�烈Jx�����For millennia, this cave was home to Neanderthals.�� pC�u�烈lؠġ��But one layer stood out, containing finely crafted tools.��C�u�烈�������Small and precise.��X�ȡ8Techniques that suggested they were made not by Neanderthals,��hC�u�烈�������but by Homo sapiens.���C�u�烈��ʡāA suspicion confirmed when the Earth revealed another treasure.��C�u�烉+��ơ��That then is conclusive evidence that that layer with those��C�u�烉C��ʡāstrange, unusual stone tools is definitely a Homo sapien layer?�� p����� p- Yes.��C�u�烉t��̡Ɓ- These discoveries tell us a story of one group of Homo sapiens.���C�u�烉�x�����Among the first to come to Europe...���C�u@�烉�h�����..they had ventured into Neanderthal territory...�� x�ơ��8..seeking refuge in this cave in the depths of the Ice Age.��XC�u@�烉�0�š��When we imagine the past, we often don't imagine children.�� ������ �We imagine, well, a man, a caveman, right? - Yeah.�� XC�u@�烉�0�����- But, actually, these were cave children. - Yeah.����š���- And you imagine what they were doing, were they playing?�� �C�u�烊 ������- They were playing.��(�ġ��(- But imagine to have been born, the first of your people���C�u@�烊X�����to turn up there - and we don't know,����š���they might have been born somewhere else - but... - Yeah.��������(- ..it's fascinating.��C�u�烊8������Wow.��C�u@�烊N�ȡUsing advanced dating techniques, a team were able to uncover���š��even more precise details about the people who lived here.��(C�u@�烊�࠳���So people were building fires... - Yeah.���ϡɁ�- ..the fire created soot that would end up on the roof. - Exactly.�� HC�u@�烊������- And then bits of the roof would collapse��𠼡���and end up in your archaeological layers? - Yes.�� P�ҡ́@- It's literally telling you when they're using this place. - Exactly.��xC�u@�烊�蠷���- By counting the microscopic layers of soot�� ����� deposited on the cave ceiling,�� �����8the team could tell how often these people came here.�� �C�u�烋C@�����But what happened to them?���C�u@�烋�@�ˡŁThis exceptional site tells the story of a group of Homo sapiens�������pioneers who lived here in between tens of thousands���C�u�烋�(�����of years of Neanderthal occupation.�� �����HBut then all traces of them vanished.�� C�u�烋Ԑ�ɡÁIt's one small but very important chapter in our bigger story.���C�u@�烋���ϡɁWe don't know what happened to that particular group of Homo sapiens�� ����� �from Grotte Mandrin, but it's likely that their story�� �C�u@�烌������reflects what was unfolding across the continent.��`�ѡˁ`This wave of Homo sapiens was lured into Europe during a warmer spell.��0C�u@�烌*0�����They were pioneers for sure, but they were trying to�� ��ġ�� �survive in a brand-new environment as best as they could,���C�u@�烌FȠСʁas best as they knew how, really, finding temporary places to shelter�� ����� before in the blink of an eye moving on -�� XC�u�烌e@�����or worse, dying out completely.�� ����� �Because that band of Homo sapiens from Grotte Mandrin�� �C�u�烌}�á��would be the last of our species found on this continent��`�����`for thousands of years.���C�u@�烌�Ƞá��Perhaps unprepared for the harsh environment they faced,��x�š��xthis early wave of Homo sapiens in Europe did not survive.���C�u�烌�ؠ����Once again, and for the next 9,000 years,�� H����� Hit became exclusively Neanderthal territory.�� HC�u�烍�ˡŁNeanderthals had survived while Homo sapiens died out in Europe.��HC�u�烍*p�����Yet today, we're the only ones left.�� �������How did our stories end so differently?�� C�u�烍�Ƞ����Part of the answer can be found deep�� 𠲡�� �within the forests of northern Spain...�� C�u�烍���¡��..where evidence hints that the grip of the Ice Age was��@�����@taking its toll on the Neanderthals.��pC�u�烍�ؠǡ��A struggle uncovered in a cave known as the Tunnel of Bones.���C�u�烎0�����Oh, wow.��(C�u�烎M�����So this is the famous El Sidron Cave. - It is, yes.�� �C�u�烎jp�̡Ɓ- It's got more character than I was expecting, actually. - Yes.�� 0C�u�烎ڠ�����- And how did you find them?��C�u�烏0�����Wow.���C�u�烏+@�����Such a diverse group in terms of individuals...�� �C�u�烏C������..all found in one spot.���C�u�烏���͡ǁAnd, you know, when you say that one of those people had red hair,���C�u�烏Ǩ�š��it suddenly brings what are just fossils, really, to life.���C�u�烏�x�����It's a cave that's filled with ghosts.�� �C�u�烐-������This was not a natural death.�� P����� Cracked skulls and precise cuts on the bones...�� C�u�烐R������..suggest that this was a brutal massacre.�� �C�u�烐lX�����13 people killed by another Neanderthal group.���C�u�烐�𠲡��But closer analysis of their remains...�� ������..revealed an even darker truth.���C�u�烐�࠰���So what do the bones actually tell us?���C�u@�烐׈�͡ǁThey were really eating these 13 individuals? - Yeah, yeah, yeah.��H�ơ��H- So how do we know that this was cannibalism as opposed to���C�u�烐���ˡŁjust straight up murder - or, for that matter, an animal coming?��@C�u�烑>�����So you're looking for something sharp?��𠿡���And now, you have a... - Yeah, that's it, let's see.��@C�u@�烑n(�����- Yeah. Yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah.����ȡ@Yeah. So, they're focusing on the areas where there's muscle,�� 0C�u�烑�������where there's meat, effectively. - That's it.���C�u�烑�𠕡��- Yeah. Oh!��(C�u@�烑��á��Yeah, if you're getting bone marrow... - That's it, yes.��H�����H- ..that is an indication of cannibalism, for sure.�������`- Yes, it is, sure. - Yeah.��@C�u�烑���¡��This murder/cannibalism of 13 members of a family group���C�u�烒 x�����isn't the only dark thing that's happening here.�� 8C�u�烒Zh�����That's unusual, that's a congenital anomaly.�� C�u�烒�������So, basically, you've got an inbred population.�� �C�u@�烒񨠬���It's painting a picture, isn't it?�������Of those...those final thousands... - Yes.�� �ȡ- ..thousands of years before they eventually became extinct.�� �C�u�烓#������Yeah, it's a silent killer. You're right.�� C�u�烓lx�͡ǁThe El Sidron bones hint at more than the suffering of one family.���C�u�烓�h�����Because this pattern of starvation, cannibalism��8�����8and violence was happening across Europe...�� C�u�烓�h�����..this was a species in free fall.�� C�u@�烓Ơ�����This is a haunting place.���������It's not exactly Neanderthals in their heyday, is it?�� x�á��pIf anything, it's kind of like the end of days for them.���C�u�烓瘠����They've been driven into this evolutionary cul-de-sac,���������reduced to eating each other�� �C�u@�烔�����and having children with their relatives.�� P�Сʁ PAnd that inbreeding would have made them more susceptible to disease.��0C�u�烔������If, on the evolutionary timescale,�� ��š�� �12:00 midnight represents extinction for the Neanderthals,���C�u�烔7������this site is past 11:30.�� xC�u�烔YР����This once resilient species...�� Ƞ�����..was now reduced to just a few isolated groups...��`C�u�烔~�����..turning on one another.��C�u�烔�p�ϡɁBut any chance Neanderthals may have had of weathering this storm...��8C�u�烔�0�����..was shattered by the return of another species.�� HC�u�烔�Р����Homo sapiens.��PC�u�烔�(�ơ��9,000 years after Homo sapiens had disappeared from Europe,��X�����Xwaves of settlers returned.��0C�u�烕7�����A new generation...����ġ�� ..who, even though the climate was as volatile as ever...�� HC�u�烕Z������..were undeterred.��xC�u�烕ox�����These were survivors, and they were here to stay.���C�u@�烕�������Some archaeological finds,��Ƞʡā�their significance is immediately obvious, but others you don't�� ��ɡÁ`necessarily know what you're looking at until you suddenly do.�� XC�u@�烕�������And this is a really good example of this.�� `����� `This might not seem like a lot,���������but actually it represents a massive step forward.�� �C�u�烕�X�����So what you're looking at here is�� `����� `the imprint, in clay, of weaving.�� C�u@�烕󀠴���Now we don't know if it was intentional -����̡Ɓ�it might have just been that there was some material on the floor�� H������and somebody just happened to throw down some clay,���C�u@�烖8�̡Ɓbut they actually think that this may have been made with nettle.���������And you're probably thinking, "Well, nettle, really?"�� �C�u@�烖,��¡��Well, that is probably a by-product of the modern world�� ��͡ǁ �and all the fabrics that we use, but actually this here is made of��xC�u�烖G��ԡ΁nettle, and this is the woven fabric that they were able to make from it.���C�u�烖f��ɡÁIf you can make this, you can suddenly make better clothing...�� �C�u�烖���̡Ɓ..and you're able to protect yourself so much more from the cold.�� pC�u@�烖�`�ɡÁMaybe those young children in a cold spell might have survived�� ������ �a bit better if their clothing fitted better.�� XC�u@�烖��ʡāBut you can't just think about weaving as being about clothing,����Сʁ�because if you can weave, suddenly your nets, your traps, are better.��XC�u�烖������You're able to get more food.�������You're potentially able to make better shelter.�� �C�u@�烗 �����Whenever we talk about Palaeolithic technology,�� @����� @you're probably thinking about spears or stone tools.���C�u@�烗!�����It's always weaponry, right?���¡���Well, actually, this stuff might have really given them�� P�����0the edge, as well.���C�u@�烗G��ġ��It's likely the ability to make better clothing increased��ؠ�����infant survival, even in the harshest months.�� pC�u�烗z �����Each advance, however small, added up...��8C�u�烗�ؠš��..giving Homo sapiens the one thing Neanderthals lacked...�� �C�u�烗�������..strength in numbers.�� C�u�烗�h�����The Neanderthals had existed for over 400,000 years...��0C�u�烗�@�����..developing a rich culture...��HC�u�烘"������..and withstanding brutal conditions for millennia.�� C�u�烘D������But the relentless climate, dwindling resources...���C�u�烘]x�Ρȁ..and another species growing in strength pushed them to the brink.���C�u�烘�0�����But what delivered the final blow?��H������How does an entire human species disappear�� �C�u�烘�������from the face of the Earth?��@C�u�烘�`�¡��Part of the answer may lie in the smallest of things...��@C�u�烘�X�ǡ��..the genes we exchanged in the form of our hybrid children.���C�u@�烙 �����I'm going to try and do a demo to explain genetics.�� ����� So let's see how this goes.�������Let's say that these are the Neanderthals,���C�u@�烙#������and these are the Homo sapiens,�������and they interbreed.��(������We don't know where the hybrid children ended up.�� PC�u@�烙>Ƞ����Did they end up with the Neanderthals,��P�ȡPor did they end up with the Homo sapiens? So, let's just say,�� P������they went back 50-50.���C�u�烙Y0�ˡŁAnd we see a little Homo sapiens DNA in the Neanderthal group...�� �C�u@�烙m�ġ��..and a little Neanderthal DNA in the Homo sapiens group.�� ������pThe Neanderthals lived in small, isolated populations,�� �C�u@�烙� �����but the Homo sapiens were probably a little bit better�� x����� xat keeping their kids alive.���á���And also, importantly, they were constantly replenishing��`C�u�烙��͡ǁfrom source populations in the Middle East, Africa, and elsewhere.��xC�u�烙�Ƞ����Numbers made all the difference.���C�u�烙�P�����As more Homo sapiens migrated into Europe,�� p����� pNeanderthals were already declining.���C�u�烚P�����So, when the two interbred,�������the impact on Neanderthals was far greater.�� 0C�u@�烚%��ǡ��If you're a huge population, that interbreeding doesn't have�� ��ѡˁ �the same impact as it does on the much smaller Neanderthal population.���C�u@�烚DР����It's already a little bit interbred.���ɡÁ�Perhaps they were simply absorbed into the larger Homo sapiens���C�u�烚]X�����population that just kept on replenishing.�� `������Over time, Neanderthal DNA became increasingly�� 0C�u�烚x8�����diluted by the much larger Homo sapiens population.���C�u@�烚�ȠɡÁSo, it doesn't actually need to be this big act of aggression.�� ������ �It might just be the fact that we were there, that we�� �C�u@�烚�P�����were interbreeding with them,���������and that we had large population sizes.�� 8�ʡā�Perhaps that was enough to push the Neanderthals to extinction.��C�u�烚�h�����It was a perfect storm for Neanderthals.�� (C�u�烚�h�ɡÁBy around 40,000 years ago, their gene pool was diminishing...���C�u�烛�ѡˁ..until only a handful of distinct Neanderthal populations remained...���C�u�烛4�����..hanging on in just a few isolated enclaves.��PC�u@�烛N������We don't know where the last Neanderthal outpost was.�� ����� It was likely a very remote part of Europe or Asia.���C�u@�烛h������But around 40,000 years ago, that place probably��P�¡��Pacted as a refuge to the very, very last of their kind.��0C�u@烛���ʡāArchaeologists have pieced together what may be among the final��x�����xmoments of Neanderthal extinction.���C�u�烛�`�����Uncovering remains of what could be�� `����� `the last surviving Neanderthal groups.�� �C�u�烛쐠����Some of that evidence has been discovered�� h����� hin coastal caves in southern Spain.�� C�u�烜`�ġ��We don't know what truly happened in those final moments,���������or who was left at the end.���C�u�烜Aࠢ���But there was an ending.��@C�u�烜]������Because after that, our sister species,��@�����@who had existed for around���C�u�烜u蠚���400,000 years...���C�u�烜�������..vanishes from the archaeological record completely.���C�u�烜�0�����It feels like a moment of loss.��0�����0We lost something.��h����� �But also...��C�u�烜������..it's part of the human story.��蠙����It's our story.��������xThese were our ancestors.��XC�u@�烜�h�̡ƁOn the one hand, it's hard not to be impressed with Homo sapiens.���ʡāAnd if we hadn't have been so successful, if we hadn't have had��xC�u�烝 �͡ǁthis hunger to innovate, to explore, would you and I even be here?���C�u�烝-0�����And yet, those same things that make us so remarkable��࠰����seem to be damning to those around us.�� C�u�烝a������This is where this chain of events ends.�� C�u�烝xРˡŁA slow, unwitting war of attrition against our sister species...���C�u�烝�(�����..until they simply faded away.���C�u�烝�@�����But this wasn't the only ending.��H����� After the last Neanderthals, the Denisovans -�� �C�u�烝�H�����the species who once spanned much of Asia -�� ����� may have survived for another 10,000 years...��`C�u�烞�����..until they, too, were overwhelmed by Homo sapiens.��PC�u@�烞h�ơ��This story starts with three species, but it ends with one.��h�ˡŁhAnd it's part of a wider pattern that always goes the same way -��C�u�烞=ؠΡȁthe survival of our species leading to the demise of everyone else.���C�u�烞m������Today, these events have faded from memory.��C�u�烞�������But it's not quite the end of the story.�� ������Because we carry a piece of this history within us.�� �C�u@�烞�x�ǡ��One of the most striking revelations over the last few years��ؠ�����is that everybody from outside of Sub-Saharan Africa�� C�u�烞�h�����has about 2% Neanderthal DNA.���C�u@�烞�������And that DNA is associated with negative things�� 𠟡�� �like Crohn's disease,��������but it's also associated with all kinds of positives,�� C�u�烟 ������like being better adapted to the cold.�� �C�u�烟!������And now we know that Denisovan DNA�� ����� has been found in Homo sapiens populations.�� PC�u�烟5Р����It's as high as 6% in the Philippines.�� Р���� �And it's associated with things like��XC�u�烟I������being able to survive better at high altitude.�� `C�u@�烟a�ơ��And if you think about it, it actually makes perfect sense.���������Because when we were leaving Africa, the Neanderthals���C�u�烟��Ρȁand the Denisovans had already spent hundreds of thousands of years���C�u�烟���ˡŁadapting and evolving to their local environments and pathogens.���C�u�烟�X�����And so what we were doing by interbreeding with them�� ����� was effectively a quick fix.�� �C�u�烟� �ϡɁWe were adopting adaptations that would ultimately aid our survival.��C�u@�烟�H�����Depending on where you're from, you'll probably find�� ������ �traces of Neanderthal or Denisovan DNA within you...�� pC�u�烠������..a genetic echo of the human story connecting us��@�����@to this long line of distant ghosts.�� C�u@�烠7�Ρȁ2% might not sound like a lot, but my 2% is different from your 2%.�������And collectively, all of that Neanderthal DNA�� 0C�u�烠V@�����that exists within humans living today�� �ġ�� �would make up about two-thirds of the Neanderthal genome.���C�u�烠o������And so in a very real sense, Neanderthals�� Ƞ���� �and Denisovans have been assimilated into our bodies.��xC�u�烠�������And it's just the loveliest thought, isn't it?�� ������ �That they live on and exist within us.�� hC�u�烠�࠺���Our planet was once home to many human species.���C�u�烠ۈ�á��Bit by bit, they've all disappeared, leaving only one...��(C�u�烠������..the inheritors of their DNA.���C�u�烡.������..as the Ice Age reaches greater extremes,���������we step into an unexplored continent...�� �C�u�烡P�����..where new dangers lie in wait...�� ������8..starvation threatens...���C�u�烡s�����..and humans have to fight to survive.�� 0C�u�烢?𠸡��For 270,000 years, our species, Homo sapiens,��0C�u�烢V �����lived in a world inhabited by other types of human.���C�u�烢rh�����We hunted and foraged for food,���������alongside many of our human relatives.�� HC�u�烢�������But one by one, we out-survived them...���C�u�烢�0�š��..and spread across the planet as small bands of nomads...���C�u�烢������..until we'd reached almost every corner of the globe.��C�u�烢�������But a great landmass still evaded us.��C�u�烣ࠗ���The Americas.���C�u�烣2��͡ǁAs we entered this new world, we would face ferocious predators...��C�u�烣T0�����..and towering giants.���������MAMMOTHS BELLOW���C�u�烣kȠ����But how we took on these challenges...��������`..and the ways we began to tame nature���C�u�烣�ؠ����in our journey through the Americas...�� ������@..would set us on a path to how we live today.��pC�u�烣�������It's a chapter of our story��p�š��pthat begins in one of the coldest and most dangerous times��HC�u�烣�x�����humans have ever known.��HC�u�烤qР����At the height of the last Ice Age,�� ������ �a time when sea levels were lower than today,���C�u�烤������people were spreading from East Asia�� X����� Xinto a place that no longer exists.�� �C�u�烤�������A vast land bridge called Beringia.�� Р����0WIND HOWLS�� PC�u�烤�0�����And in this frozen north,��p�����psmall groups of travellers dispersed ever eastward...���C�u�烤�X�����..and found themselves stepping into a new land.���C�u@�烥�ؠ����If you were asked to conjure up in your mind��p�ȡpa world that was magical, that was pristine, that was primal,��pC�u@�烥�������you'd imagine something like this.�� ��̡Ɓ �The northwest coast of America absolutely takes your breath away.���C�u�烥��ΡȁWe don't exactly know when humans first arrived in North America...���C�u�烥����..but many archaeologists believe���������it was sometime around 20,000 years ago.���C�u�烦��ȡA time when this would have been a challenging place to live.��C�u�烦+��ԡ΁They were here at one of the coldest moments Homo sapiens had ever known.���C�u�烦I������And the landscape would have looked so different.�� 8����� 8There would have been very few trees.�� hC�u�烦^(�����And, as far as the eye could see,�� ����� there would have been barren, icy rock.�� �C�u�烦�8�����They knew how to survive��������in the barren lands of Beringia that they'd come from.�� �C�u�烦�`�ɡÁBut their new environment was different in a few crucial ways.��(C�u�烦�Ƞ����The northern half of this continent���������was covered in a vast, towering ice sheet.���C�u�烦؀�����From here in the northwest,���ġ���this wall of ice blocked routes into the deep interior...��8C�u�烦���̡Ɓ..largely confining people to the ice-free land nearer the coast.���C�u�烧�����WAVES CRASH�� �C�u�烧I������All that's left from their time here���������are footprints, stone tools, and animal bones.��`C�u@�烧`��á��Now, we know that they sometimes would have hunted seal,�� ����� they would have eaten fish,����á���they would have eaten seabirds if they could catch them.�� �C�u�烧~H�����GULLS CRY��������Only tiny fragments of evidence remain...�� �C�u�烧�ࠠ���SLIDE PROJECTOR CLICKS��ؠ���� `..that hint at how they survived.�� @C�u�烧�0�����And whilst this northwest coast�� ������ �offered them steady but limited sustenance,���C�u@烧�@�����the strip of land between the shore and the ice sheets�������promised new opportunities to find food...���C�u�烨������..but also hid unexpected new dangers.�� C�u�烨J�����Oof.��ؠ���� �This is a now-extinct predator,�� �C�u@�烨a������and it would have roamed these parts in the northwest�� ����� when the first people arrived in the Americas,�� (C�u�烨wР����and they actually call it the short-faced bear.�� �������And there is nothing short about this bear.�� (C�u�烨�������When it stood on its hind legs,��x�����xit would have been about 11, 12 feet tall.���C�u@�烨�蠣���That's about four metres.��h�����hAnd so it would have made the grizzly bear look...�� �������..actually somewhat manageable.�� �C�u�烨�������And then look at these teeth, look at these canines.�������The stuff that nightmares are made of.�� `C�u�烨�(�����And when it bumped into humans...��X�����8..it must have been absolutely terrifying.���C�u�烨������And just like those humans,��Р�����these bears, too, would have been hungry.�� �C�u�烩#������But the early people of the northwest�� P����� Pdid not run from the monsters that roamed this land.��xC�u�烩Qx�����Instead, it seems, they went on the offensive.�� �C�u�烩�H�ˡŁSigns of their bravery remain in caves along the Canadian coast.��8C�u�烩�`�ȡHere, archaeologists sift through the muddy layers of time...���C�u�烪�ѡˁ..to find out more about the risks these early people took to survive.���C�u�烪;ؠ����You know when people talk about archaeology? - Yes.�� ������ �- At the back of a cave, digging mud is...�� C�u@�烪V@�����..is... This is the hard stuff.��@�����@- One thing that has been found��(����� hin a number of caves on the northwest coast��`C�u@�烪p�����is, er...spear points in association with bear bones.��h�ȡh- Yeah. - And these date as far back as 13,000 years. - Mm.�� �C�u�烪�0�����So is this one of these spear points?�� ࠯��� �- This is a fragment of a spear point��pC�u�烪���á��that was found in a cave not too far from here. - Yeah.�� �C�u@�烪�������- We have uncovered a bone in the wall of this unit.��h�����hAnd it's, er, 20 centimetres below the surface.�� C�u�烪��ԡ΁And, er, so I'm going to pull it and we'll see if it moves. - All right.�� C�u@�烪��ʡāAnd we don't know what species it is or what bit of bone it is?�� H�á�� H- Er, there's not enough here to know for sure. - Yeah.�� @C�u@�烫��͡ǁ- But it is a pretty big mammal, for certain. - Oh, look at that.���������THEY CHUCKLE Oh, it's not ending.���C�u@�烫'Ƞ����- Just make sure it slides out.���֡Ё(- Ah, it's a rib, isn't it? Is it? - It looks like a rib. - Yeah. - Yeah.���C�u�烫F������So that could be a bear rib.����ǡ���It's probably most likely what it is, cos it's quite robust.���C�u@�烫f������- How amazing.���������What age do you think it is?��p�աρh- Well, we have some other samples from above where this bone is. - Yeah.���C�u@�烫��¡��- And they're coming back, er, around 14,000 years old.�� p�ϡɁ p- OK. So it's old. - So it could be the same age or older. - Yeah.�� �C�u@�烫��ǡ��You know, one of the most wonderful things about archaeology�� X����� Xis that sometimes you uncover something�� �C�u@�烫���á��that hasn't seen the light of day in thousands of years.�� p����� pAnd in this case, well, maybe 14,000 years.�� �C�u�烫�(�ˡŁ- Well, we're interested in where bears were hunted in the past.�������And in the winter,���C�u@�烫�蠿���when there's... There's not as many resources around�� ������ �and people are feeling a bit hungry,�� ��ǡ��knowing where there is a bear den is quite a valuable thing,��C�u�烬�����cos you can come up there and dispatch the bear.���C�u�烬/ؠ����You'll have a load of meat, fur, as well as bones.���C�u�烬K������- One theory of how they hunted bears�� ������ �would have meant getting perilously close.�� �C�u�烬k��á��- Essentially, a hunter would go with a party to a cave,��C�u�烬������smoke the bear out of the cave,�� 𠺡�� �and entice that bear to attack a single hunter.���C�u@�烬�p�����That hunter would be armed with a bracing spear.��(�ơ��(A bear would come, er, to take the hunter up in a bear hug,���C�u�烬�H�����which is a common thing that they do. - Yeah.�� ����� - And the idea is a bear would take that hunter�� C�u@�烬�h�����and cru, er... essentially give him a good crushing.�� ��̡Ɓ �The hunter, at the same time, would brace the spear on the ground��C�u@�烬�8�����and aim it at the bear's heart.���������And so essentially the bear would take... - Oh...�� ������- ..the hunter and the spear into the bear hug,�� �C�u�热h�����thereby spearing itself through the heart.���C�u�热RP�͡ǁ- A successful bear hunt could have meant food through the winter.���C�u�热Ƞ����But not every hunter survived.�� C�u@�热�������This is the bone cast of the oldest adult�� �Сʁ �to have been found along this coast. They were born 10,000 years ago.���C�u@�热ۀ�����And this individual has been given a name - Shuka Kaa.�� ������ �And there's so much we don't know about this person.�� �C�u@�热�࠰���We don't know about their family life.���������We don't know if they had children.�� `������But the amazing thing about bones��0C�u@�烮 �ơ��is that they can tell a story if you know how to read them.�������We know that this individual was a male.�� �C�u�烮$𠲡��We can tell that from various features,�� ����� like the squareness here of the chin,�� �C�u�烮9������like the back of the mandible,��`�����`like the angle here on the pelvis.�� �C�u�烮QȠϡɁOn a female, you would typically expect that angle to be much wider.�� �������And it's kind of sad��XC�u�烮k�ϡɁbecause you can also tell quite a tragic story on the bones as well.��XC�u�烮�p�����If you notice here -�� P����� Pthat is a puncture wound,�� (C�u@�烮�蠼���and it fits quite well with the canine of a bear.����ɡÁ�And so we think that this individual possibly met their demise��`C�u�烮�Ƞ����because they were hunting for bears.�� C�u�烮Ը�¡��The dangers early humans faced down in order to survive���������are hard to imagine now.���C�u�烮�P�ǡ��But their precarious relationship with this unforgiving land���������had begun to shift...��@C�u�烯(�����..thanks partly to a surprising form of help.�� �C�u�烯<������WOLVES CHATTER��C�u�烯R������By hunting in packs,���������wolves can bring down prey far larger than themselves.���C�u�烯l�ɡÁA person, especially on their own, would be highly vulnerable.���C�u�烯�H�����- Good girl. Yeah.��࠺����It's unusual to have them all just around, hey?�� (C�u�烯�������OK, come on. Let's go.��������- Wolves are, and always have been, wild animals.��hC�u�烯�Ƞ����Shelley, am I able to come a bit closer? - Yep.�� 0C�u�烰�����- I think the question is, how close?���C�u�烰Р����It's funny, I can feel it in my shoulders.�� Ƞ���� �My shoulders are a little bit tense.���C�u�烰R��á��But, given time, wolves are able to habituate to humans.��xC�u�烰p������Hello.��ؠ���� �WHISPERING: Hello.��`C�u�烰�𠽡��From around 40,000 years ago, probably in Siberia,��xC�u�烰�h�����before humans had even reached North America,�� ������ �the threat they faced from wolves���C�u�烰�蠷���began to transform into something different.�� �C�u@�烰�������Now, we're not exactly sure of the details,��X�����Xbut it might have gone something like this.��Р����(Wolves would gather around human campsites.�� `C�u�烰�H�����Now, at first, maybe humans were terrified.�� ������ �Maybe they thought that they wanted to eat them.�� XC�u@�烱��ѡˁBut actually, some of those wolves weren't interested in that at all -��8�����8they were looking for scraps.�� �C�u�烱*`�����And as they were doing that,���������maybe they started fending off other predators�� C�u�烱>�����and protecting our combined territory.��ؠ�����And because of this, humans started tolerating�� �C�u@�烱Y�ʡāsome of the least aggressive, some of the most docile of these.�� ������ �Maybe they even started feeding them.���C�u�烱y������We were reshaping wolves into dogs...�� �C�u�烱�Р����..and began to use them...��𠡡�� X..to guard our camps...���C�u�烱�P�����..hunt prey...�������� ..and pull sleds.��hC�u�烱ͨ�����Generation after generation,�� `�ǡ�� `we selected the most docile animals and reared their pups...���C�u�烱������..driving the evolution of a cooperative behaviour�� ������ �that suited our needs.���C�u�烲(�����This marked a turning point for the human species.��PC�u@�烲.������Living with dogs helped us hunt for food and survive.�� ������ �It gave us this much-needed edge over hunger,��xC�u�烲K�Ρȁbut it also marked this profound and completely unprecedented shift��XC�u@�烲b@�����in our relationship with nature.�� ����� Because never before had any living thing,�� 8�����Xwhether plant or animal, been domesticated.�� C�u�烲�������This was a complete first.�� C�u�烲�������Unbeknownst to us, we were becoming curators of nature��hC�u�烲�(�����and gaining more control over our own fate.�� �C�u@�烲Ԡ�¡��But powerful forces far beyond the control of any human��H�͡ǁHwere about to open new gateways into the North American continent.��pC�u�烳8�����And as people answered the call of the interior,��H�����Hfar beyond the mountains and glaciers,���C�u�烳&0�š��they would be forced to find entirely new ways to survive.��PC�u@�烳ph�����A fresh wave of human innovation would be triggered�� ��á�� �around 15,000 years ago, when the climate began to warm.���C�u�烳�Р����The ice sheets and glaciers started to retreat.�� �C�u�烳�`�����And as they did, the last major barrier�� X����� Xblocking routes into the continent fell.�� �C�u@�烴d������The first people to enter into the Americas��H�����Hwere coastal people in the northwest,��������but it's likely that they eventually travelled�� hC�u�烴��ȡincredibly rapidly down south, all the way to Central America���C�u@�烴��ǡ��and then carried on all the way to the tip of South America.��`�����`Because remember - they were coastal people.�� �C�u�烴���ʡāIt's likely that they were using some kind of seafaring method.�� ������XSo, very early on,��PC�u�烴�h�����some humans would have started to enter the continent�� ������ �from along this sea route.���C�u�烴ﰠ����But when the ice sheets eventually started to retreat,�� ����� many new routes would have opened up.�� (C�u�烵��ʡāMore people started travelling into the interior of the country���C�u�烵(h�����and finding these completely new landscapes.���C�u�烵N������Some of the first humans to reach the interior�� 0����� 0left traces here in New Mexico.�� (C�u�烵i@�����SLIDE PROJECTOR CLICKS��Р���� �Fossilised footprints.���C�u�烵������Left in the muddy shore of an ancient lake.���C�u�烵�𠢡��The people who made them��Ƞ�����may have been part of one of the very earliest waves��`C�u�烵��ȡof what was to become 10,000 years of human migration inland.��C�u�烵񀠿���Where there is now desert, they saw rich grasslands.��PC�u@�烶@�¡��The fossilised footprints of these continental pioneers���������reveal what kind of a world they'd stepped into.��0C�u�烶:P�����These are the footprints of an actual human being�� ����� who stood basically where I'm standing.�� �C�u@�烶S�����And we think she was a female.�� ������ �And if you look closely at those footprints,��������8what you see is that, at times, the footprints,�� �C�u�烶q�����they get broader and they slip a little in the mud.�� �C�u�烶������SLIDE PROJECTOR CLICKS��ࠜ���0And that's because��xC�u�烶�������she was carrying a child.��蠻����Sometimes on this hip and sometimes on this hip.�� �C�u@�烶�x�á��Then at other times, she stopped and put the child down,��@�����@and you end up with two sets of footprints.�� C�u�烷 ������SLIDE PROJECTOR CLICKS���C�u�烷6������And she walked for at least a kilometre north,��`�����`and then heads back south.���C�u�烷M������I just can't think of anything more...more human��X�����Xthan a mother and a child walking together,�� �C�u�烷kȠ����and a mother carrying her child.�� @����� @And it's interesting, cos this whole journey�� PC�u�烷�X�ơ��has been us tracing the footsteps of our ancient ancestors.���C�u�烷�H�����And in a moment like this, that's actually literal.�� HC�u@�烷�蠿���Archaeologists are finding more of these footprints,���̡Ɓleft by a female or possibly an adolescent male carrying a child,��HC�u@�烷�0�����hidden beneath the hard, packed sand.�� �̡Ɓ�It's allowing us to piece together an ever more detailed snapshot�� C�u�烸H�����of what happened in the moments captured here.�� pC�u@�烸2�̡Ɓ- Let's see if we can define the footprint a little bit. - Yeah.���������It's always scary when you start these things.�� 0C�u@�烸M�����You've got to...��������..take them out.��P�ɡÁ �- There's a subtle difference between the soil in the print...�� xC�u�烸ex�ѡˁ- It's looser, it's a little damp, so it's going to smear a bit today,��h�����hbut it will come out.���C�u@�烸�������- You see it so...��h����� �..so clearly.����ơ��@OK. So how have you...? So you've just traced along the...?�� �C�u�烸�������- I've just... I've literally just broken the surface���C�u@�烸�������with the dental pick. - Yeah.�� ����� - And then this particular example��p�ȡ�just brushes out with a little bit of encouragement. - Yeah.�� �C�u@�烸ٸ�ǡ��- And you can see the contrast between the white... - Yeah.���������- ..and the fill in there. I'm removing the... - Wow.�� �C�u@�烸�蠼���- ..the sediment that's blown into the footprint.�� �������- So we think she was walking quite quickly, then?��C�u@�烹��ѡˁ- Yeah, she's walking at about 1.6, something like, metres per second.��X�աρX- Wow. - And, and a comfortable, normal sort of walk is about 1.3 to 1.5.���C�u�烹6��ơ��So she, she's moving. And this surface is wet, it's slippy.��h�����hWe do know that this was a mission.�� PC�u@�烹Qh�����They were on a mission.����¡���They were moving quickly at speed, for whatever reason,�� ������ and the footprint, um, tells that story.�� �C�u�烹�x�Сʁ- Why that person was hurrying might be explained by evidence nearby.��(C�u�烹��ġ��Other footprints, each one around two feet in diameter...���C�u�烹�蠝���..left by mammoths.��pC�u�烹��á��And crisscrossing the footprints of the mother and child�������are the tracks of a giant ground sloth.�� �C�u@�烺������Out in the open, with dangerous animals close by,���ˡŁthe mother was perhaps seeking safety for herself and her child.��`C�u@�烺L��ʡāThis landscape would have been filled with mammoth and mastodon���������and sabre-toothed cats - just huge animals.��C�u@�烺kp�����They would have dwarfed us.����á���The mammoth alone would stand at about four metres high,�� Ƞ�����that's about 13 feet, at the shoulders,�� �C�u�烺�������and the mastodon were only slightly smaller.�� P�����pFor the humans here, this was their new world.�� �C�u�烺������The early people of the plains��p�����pwould have given these prehistoric mammals...�� C�u�烺�蠙���..a wide berth.��h�����SLIDE PROJECTOR CLICKS���C�u�烺�ࠥ���But they must have realised�������that those animals also represented opportunity.�� �C�u�烻"�ġ��That these grazing giants could provide them with food...��@C�u�烻@������..if they could find a way to bring them down.�� �C�u�烻\ؠ����We know they eventually found a way to do this�� ����� because they left a massive clue.�� @C�u�烻s0�����SLIDE PROJECTOR CLICKS��Р����Skeletons of this megafauna.�� �C�u�烻������Some clearly killed by humans.��C�u�烻������Humans would have exploited some megafauna,�� ������ �some large land animals on the coast,�� �C�u�烻�@�����but it was once they hit the interior�� ������ �that they saw them on a scale like something else,��`C�u�烻�P�ȡin terms of their sheer numbers, in terms of their diversity.�� �C�u�烼蠻���But how on earth could people hunt these giants?�� HC�u�烼 Ƞ����BIRD CALLS�� 8����� 8CRICKETS CHIRP���C�u�烼B������One animal still exists which gives us a sense�� 0����� 0of just how difficult that would have been.�� (C�u�烼ip�����RUMBLING�� @C�u�烼�p�����HOOFBEATS RUMBLE���C�u�烼�������This beast can sprint at up to 40mph.���C�u�烼�������The male's horns are over two feet long.�� h�����And, 14,000 years ago,�� �C�u�烼�`�����these bison had an even bigger prehistoric relative���������roaming these parts.�� C�u�烼��ġ��WHISPERING: Absolutely incredible, but they're also so...��HC�u�烽������..big. They're about one tonne in size.��0�����0And the giant bison, the one that's now extinct,���C�u�烽4࠯���but would have been around back then,���������was up to 50... 50% bigger.��C�u�烽K������HOOFBEATS RUMBLE, BISON SNORT��8�����8It's one of those things, I think -���C�u�烽_������today, you can romanticise the idea of these hunts�� ������ �and you think about them as some kind of,�� �C�u�烽vР����you know, adrenaline-filled adventure,�� ������ �but it's harder to grasp that, actually, back then,�� �C�u�烽�P�����it would have been filled with fear and risk.��@C�u�烽��̡ƁOnly a powerful spear thrust could penetrate the giants' hides...���C�u�烽騠����..so hunters needed to get close.�� `C�u�烾9�����ALARM CALL���������Many hunts ended in failure.�� C�u�烾lp�����They needed a technology upgrade.�� �C�u@�烾�p�����Up until this time,��Ƞ�����the way spear points were attached to their shafts�� X����� was a serious weakness.��XC�u�烾�蠠���SLIDE PROJECTOR CLICKS��Р����Spear points frequently broke on impact...��8C�u�烾�x�����..until the design was altered.�� PC�u�烾ؐ�����A subtle shift at first glance,�� @����� @but one that would change everything.�� 0C�u�烾������This is special.�������So, it's about 18 centimetres long.��xC�u@�烿 ������It's pretty sharp.���������If we look at the shape,��Ƞ͡ǁ�it's long and narrow with the broadest point being quite low down.���C�u@�烿.������Notice also this thinning here compared to the middle.��0�ϡɁ0It's thought that the shape might help with the penetration of hide,�� �C�u�烿L������and it's thought that this might help�� ����� with reducing shattering on impact.�� xC�u�烿h(�����We call it a Clovis point,�� ������ �because it was found near Clovis in New Mexico.�� HC�u�烿�0�����The narrow base of the Clovis points�� `�¡�� `allowed them to be slotted firmly into the spear shaft,���C�u�烿�(�����better absorbing the force of impact.�� C�u�烿�(�����From archaeological finds,���ɡÁ�we know this new design rapidly spread across the continent...��8C�u���x�����..and the technology continued to develop.�� �C�u��������Within 500 years, these points had evolved�� ������ �into more slender and sharper forms...�� �C�u���>`�����..able to penetrate deeper into prey...�� �C�u���t������..and archaeologists think these spear points�� ����� were delivered with such lethal force�� HC�u���������because of another piece of technology...�� xC�u����������..whose use was exploding.�� C�u���䠠����So this is a replica spearhead,�� @����� @and it's been hafted or attached on to a wooden shaft.��C�u@���𠾡��So, this would have been quite an effective weapon,��@�����@but this is where technology gets really interesting�� C�u���H�ѡˁbecause it's thought that one of the ways that they threw these spears��(�����(is with a spear thrower.���C�u���6X�����So you'd attach it to the top here,���������and then you would effectively use it to...���C�u���N������..propel the spear forward.���C�u����X�СʁAt that velocity, you're more likely to pierce the hide of an animal.��C�u���ΰ�����And to me, it's...����š���It's especially interesting because what you get with this��hC�u���映¡��is the ability for female hunters to be more effective,���C�u����X�Сʁbecause suddenly it's not just about strength, it's also about skill.��(C�u���; �����The new hunting technologies��H�ʡāHallowed people to take down the largest animals in their world.��`C�u��‚������Humans had become the apex predator of the plains,��0�����0and now feasted on a glut of meat.���C�u��¼Р����Our hunting prowess was shaping society here.���C�u����0�����This is absolutely stunning.��p�á��pIt's one of the most striking spearheads I've ever seen.�� �C�u���������It's... It's so well-crafted, and it shines,��8�����8and it looks like it was made of glass -�� �C�u@���������but actually, it's made of quartz,��p�����pso it's incredibly strong and it's sharp,�� ��̡Ɓ�and yet it doesn't have any signs that it was actually ever used,���C�u���@������and that, along with the fact that it's so beautiful,�� ����� suggests that it was ceremonial.���C�u@���T`�����Now, when you've got an everyday object�� Ƞš�� �and it's made to look so... so beautiful, and so striking,���C�u@���p������it implies that it had become a symbol.�� 0�ɡÁ 0We're not sure of what - perhaps of how important hunting was,�� �C�u��É�ȡbut perhaps of a cultural identity, perhaps of who they were.��C�u����x�¡��Feasts began to bring different communities together...��PC�u����P�����..and cement social ties.�� C�u����������Sharing meat fostered cooperation.�� �C�u���(�����Food was fuelling a culture.�� (C�u���-������In the midst of this abundance,�� ����� it must have felt as if it would go on forever.���C�u���j������But their world was changing.�� xC�u��ĕȠ����The end of the Ice Age��h�����hthat had gifted them this warm world of plenty��C�u��ī0�̡Ɓwas now beginning to have an effect they could not have foreseen.���C�u���݀�ϡɁIt's thought that melting ice at the poles disrupted ocean currents.���C�u����ؠ����Temperatures in the northern hemisphere�� (����� (rapidly cooled by several degrees.�� �C�u���𠟡��Across North America,����á���the vegetation had begun to alter in unpredictable ways.���C�u���:Ƞ����In some areas, trees and shrubs�� (����� (began to replace grassland and tundra.�� �C�u���Q蠠���SLIDE PROJECTOR CLICKS��𠿡�� �Woolly mammoths could not effectively chew or digest�� �C�u���jH�����these woodier plants...��XC�u���~蠴���..and as their environment transformed...�� �C�u��œ������..the giant herbivores dwindled.�� hC�u@��ų�����Over the space of just a few hundred years,��h�ơ��hthree-quarters of the large animal species in North America�� C�u���ՠ�����became extinct, vanishing forever.���C�u������ȡI imagine it must have been a shock for the early people here���C�u���������to witness the megafauna disappearing,���������because that's what they would have seen -�� xC�u@���"Р����and they're such a part of your culture and your diet�� ������ �and your lifestyle, and suddenly they're not.�� @C�u���@0�š��That... That must have been quite difficult to comprehend.���C�u@���_ �����Now, the main cause of the giant megafaunal extinction�� �ϡɁ �is climate change, but it's likely that human hunting played a role,��hC�u@���x�����that it was this final nail in the coffin -�� h�ϡɁ hand so, perhaps unknowingly, we humans tipped the balance of nature.���C�u��ƹH�����The once bountiful land of giants�� ������ �had become a pile of bones.�� �C�u���������All the hunting technology in the world�� ������ �could do nothing to reverse this catastrophe.��C�u��� �ɡÁThe people here were plunged back to a time before the feasts.��xC�u���A�ȡWith these animals gone, how would they now find enough food?���C�u���`𠻡��A clue lies in ancient holes carved in the rock.��8C�u@���}������People needed to branch out��X�����Xand exploit every part of the food chain,�� h�ѡˁ�all the way through to something you probably don't think of as food -��PC�u��ǟ������and that's acorns.����Сʁ�Now, these are incredibly bitter because they're full of tannic acid,���C�u��ǸH�����and to get rid of some of that,����ʡā�what they would do is they would firstly get rid of the shells,��XC�u@����@�����and then they would grind the nuts up��`�͡ǁ`with water in the hopes of getting rid of some of that bitterness.���C�u����������And...honestly, acorns sound disgusting��C�u@���������and they taste disgusting.��ࠫ����They're still incredibly bitter -����ѡˁ`and yet it's likely that the flour from these and the paste from these���C�u���0������were some of the earliest processed plant food.�� ������ �We actually have some of the grinding stones�� PC�u@���E������preserved in the archaeological record -�� `����� `and if you look at all this, it seems so clever,�� 8������it seems so inventive,�� �C�u���a������and yet it's a lot of effort to go to�� x�ġ�� xfor what are essentially some really unpleasant calories.��C�u��ȄР����If you were starving, no question you'd do this...�� ������..and with the loss of the megafauna,���C�u��ȟ������people's survival now hinged on smaller game��8�����8and foraging for plants.���C�u��Ƚ������But there had to be another way.�� PC�u@�� p�����The solution people came up with in the Americas��ؠ�����would be found in tropical forests to the south.���C�u��ɚ������This place, it has...�� H����� HIt has real challenges.�� `C�u��ɱH�����There are plants - so many of them look edible,�� @����� @and yet some of them are definitely poisonous.���C�u����P�̡ƁIt requires a process of trial and error to find the actual food.��0C�u����ʡāIt was in a forest, archaeologists think in present-day Mexico,��C�u���������that a momentous change took place -�� ������ �and it began with the simplest of actions.��8C�u���/`�����Every so often, someone would have come across a plant��`�����`that was safe to eat,�� C�u���G������and would have sought out more of it.�� �C�u���a�����An example of this is this grass called teosinte.��H�����HNow the seeds are incredibly small and hard,��@C�u@��ʃ������but they can be ground up into an edible flour.�� ����� So, that same ingenuity that humans brought to acorns,���C�u��ʟ@�����they were now bringing to this grass.�� `C�u��ʽh�����Where people found teosinte growing,�� (����� (they encouraged it by weeding out other plants...�� �C�u����0�����..and collected the seeds for food.�� �����8This may have continued for centuries...�� PC�u����@�ġ��..until one individual would have become the first person��(C�u���h�����in the Americas to do something completely original���������with a teosinte seed.�� 8C�u���yؠ̡ƁThere is something so magical about planting a seed, watering it,��C�u��˓𠤡��and hoping that it sprouts�� ������ �and becomes a tiny little delicate green shoot.��C�u���������And there would have been somebody�� ����� who planted the very, very first seed...�� �C�u����P�����..and they would have - they would have known��Р�����that it would require effort and care��PC�u@����p�����and protection from herbivores��𠸡���if it was to ever become something big enough�� (�����to feed their families with.��hC�u@���Р����And anybody who's ever had an allotment, or a garden,����ȡ�or a balcony knows how much care and commitment goes into it.��C�u���d�����This was an idea whose time had come.�� C�u��̊��ġ��Because humans all over the planet started to plant seeds���������and grow them for food...���C�u@��̪�����..and it was an experiment that began to pay off.�� 蠼����Because across the world, the people who did this��`C�u����h�ɡÁwere creating a more dependable way of feeding their families,���C�u����P�����and so triggered a pivotal moment for our species.���C�u���������In different places all over the Earth,�� ����� humans were inventing farming.�� C�u���%������Probably first around 10,000 years ago,�� 0����� 0in the Fertile Crescent of the Middle East,�� �C�u���=������where we domesticated wheat...��H������..then rice in China...���C�u���_𠲡��..sugar cane in present-day New Guinea.�� �C�u���uР����Farming emerged independently�� 𠴡�� �in separate locations across the globe...�� �C�u��͓������..Central and South America among the first.��hC�u��Ͷ������Here, people created what would become�� ࠷��� �one of the three most important staple crops��8C�u����������for feeding the world...�� �C�u���琠ˡŁ..because as the early farmers planted and harvested teosinte...��C�u����������..they began to shape it into a new kind of plant.���C�u@���H�š��Every so often, a genetic mutation would arise in teosinte��Р�����that would actually be quite beneficial for humans -�� C�u���:8�����that would give rise to, say, larger seeds,�� ������ �or more seeds, or sweeter seeds -�� xC�u@���OP�����and, perhaps most important of all,��Р�����would get rid of the hard seed covering,�� x�á��Hand humans started selecting for these better varieties,��C�u@���p��á��and over thousands of years, they created something new,�� ����� that looked very different from teosinte -��PC�u��Β�����because they created maize.�� x�����hIt was no longer a wild plant.�� C�u��ήx�����It was now a domesticated crop.�� C�u@����8�����The invention of farming was to set in motion a change��`�����`that would go far beyond how we fed ourselves.���C�u��� ��̡ƁThe clue is in that word, "plant" - to be put down in one place -���C�u���!x�����and just like the plants that they grew,�� p����� pthose early farmers would have had to have adopted���C�u���=p�����a very similar lifestyle.���������Because you couldn't exactly keep moving�� �C�u@��Rؠ����if you had to tend to your crops,�� ��ˡŁ �and so, for the very first time since the birth of Homo sapiens,��(C�u@���q������we were no longer a completely nomadic species.���ǡ���More and more of us were quite literally putting down roots.��C�u��Ϭؠơ��Farming supercharged our capacity to fuel human activity...���C�u���������..and what emerged was extraordinary.�� C�u����P�����Here in South America,���������there's a place where they began a new way of living��`C�u���@�����on an unprecedented scale.���C�u���L�ΡȁThe stepped pyramids of Caral were once lost under the desert sand.��C�u���xH�ʡāArchaeologists are now uncovering a vast complex of structures.���C�u��к��͡ǁAnd what made it possible to build these extraordinary edifices...��C�u����������..were the fields of crops that surrounded them.�� XC�u����p�����Caral became an immense hub for trading food.��XC�u���������It represented a new path humans could take��0�����0towards permanence and stability...�� hC�u���H������..but for our species to choose that path�� ������ �was not a foregone conclusion.�� PC�u@��ѓh�����I just can't help but think,���������what would it have been like��X�����Pfor people visiting it for the first time back then?��hC�u��ѳ �����Because they would have never seen a city before.���������It must have been so alien to them.���C�u���ʐ�á��It must have looked like a place from a different world.�� �C�u����x�����This was a commitment to a static way of life -��x�����xand yet we don't consider how tumultuous�� pC�u���`�����the process might have been,�� ������ �how much social upheaval might have been involved -�� pC�u���������because for those who chose to lead this life,���������it must have come with a huge cultural shift,��C�u���

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