All language subtitles for Impossible Engineering s10e07 Heavy Lift Helicopter.eng

In today's impossible engineering, the
amount of weight that it's capable of

lifting is what makes this aircraft
unique. The largest helicopter in the U

military arsenal.

The Superstallion has redefined what
heavy lift helicopters are.

I'm still surprised by the capabilities
it has.

and the pioneering historic innovations
that

made

the impossible possible.

Storm 11 runway 23 at Delta, wind 220 at
7, clear for takeoff.

Marine Corps Air Station, New River,
North Carolina.

Today, at this vast facility, Squadron
Commander Lieutenant Colonel Hawkins and

his team are preparing for an artillery
training exercise designed to simulate a

very real conflict situation.

We must be ready to move heavy equipment
over long ranges from the fee to the

objective to ensure Marines have what
they need when they need it.

to ensure that the Marine Corps is fully
equipped and ready to respond no matter

where conflict arises.

They turn to the sky and a helicopter
with some jaw -dropping capabilities.

This is the CH -53 Echo Super Stallion.

Measuring 99 feet long and standing over
8 feet tall, this vast aircraft is

designed to transport troops and
equipment anywhere on Earth.

Powered by three massive turboshaft jet
engines.

Combined, they produce more horsepower
than 13 Bugatti Veyron supercars.

Spinning seven main rotor blades with a
diameter just under 80 feet, the Super

Stallion can reach a top speed of around
200 miles per hour.

Designed to be able to move huge cargo
loads into position, it can carry up to

55 troops or seven pallet loads of
supplies internally or over 35 ,000

weight externally.

Across the base, inside squadron HMH
-464's locker room,

Super Stallion pilot Captain Clayton
Cottrell is preparing for today's

Our mission today, we're doing an
artillery raid in support of 10

Marines.

My role is the Dash 3 aircraft
commander. We're utilizing three

53s to conduct the raid.

And so I'll be the aircraft commander in
the last aircraft.

So with me in the aircraft, I'll have
two additional co -pilots, one crew

and then two additional aerial observers
and gunners. And then as we do these

external lifts, they're vital to
position the external hooks in the right

so that underneath the aircraft, the
helicopter support team personnel can

up the load.

Once airborne, Captain Cottrell, as well
as two other super stallion personnel,

will be lifting and moving 9 ,000 -pound
howitzer artillery guns,

ready to be fired by the Marines on the
ground.

Heavy lift externals are kind of the
bread and butter for the 53, and I love

doing that.

With the final pre -flight checks
complete, the

team is ready to take to the sky in this
formidable machine.

But how have engineers built an aircraft
capable of moving the approximate

weight of 10 family cars through the
air?

It is extremely difficult to design and
build a helicopter capable of lifting 36

,000 pounds.

Engineering a machine capable of lifting
and flying the Marines' vast arsenal of

heavy -duty weapons and vehicles into
position is a major challenge.

So when the Marine Corps enters into a
conflict, it takes a lot more than just

the Marines to make that operation
happen.

The Marine Corps has a multitude of
assets, whether it's vehicles or heavy

weapons systems that have to be
transported.

I move throughout the battle space.

But moving something like a 13 -ton
lightly armored vehicle hundreds of

air requires the Super Stallion to have
some distinct capabilities not found in

other helicopters.

In order to lift heavy cargo or supplies
underneath the aircraft, you have to

have a stable platform.

You have to have a lot of power.

And then you need an aircraft frame.

that's capable of withstanding those
forces throughout the entire operation.

So could a blueprint for the perfect
heavy -lift helicopter design lie in the

innovations of the past?

In Missouri, Doug Cyperski and his team
are tackling a huge and problematic

engineering project.

We're out here east of St. Louis
installing lattice -type power line

Each piece of these giant towers can
weigh almost 20 ,000 pounds, which makes

getting them into position in remote
locations like this one a big challenge.

Generally, when they call us, you can't
get conventional cranes out to the sites

where they need the structure standing.

For a solution, Doug and his team must
turn to the sky and a historic machine

unlike any other on planet Earth.

This is the S -64 air crane.

Originally designed in the 1960s, this
game -changing flying machine was built

with a simple goal.

To transport more weight by helicopter
than ever before.

Created by aviation pioneer Igor
Sikorsky.

It was first used by the U .S. Army
during the Vietnam War.

Offering unparalleled transport and
aircraft recovery capabilities, the S

was incomparable to any other helicopter
of the time.

It's very unique to itself, yeah, and
everybody knows when they see one of

that it's the only one shaped like this.

Based on a design that's more than 60
years old, today the air crane remains

of the world's most powerful heavy -lift
helicopters.

Currently, we're in the external load
configuration for setting anything from

power line structures to HVAC units.

What makes this feat of engineering
possible are two massive turboshaft jet

engines, producing a combined total of
around 9 ,000 horsepower.

They're big engines.

They're Pratt & Whitney engines, but
they're 4 ,700 horsepower apiece.

capable of lifting us up to 25 ,000
pounds external load.

This huge amount of power means the S
-64 can lift almost the equivalent

of two African elephants.

But to put this power to good use, Doug
and the crew also need a way to control

it with millimeter precision.

This is our aft -facing pilot position,
and it is what makes the Skycrane so

special. Facing backwards, flying the
aircraft,

allowing us with this great visibility
so we can get these giant lattice towers

set precisely.

We have full control back here. It's a
smaller window.

They say we only have 10%, but you do
have full control back here.

If this wasn't invented, what I would
have to do is you stick your head out

bubble on the left.

and you fly your external loads on a
long line.

It'd be a lot more difficult, more
dangerous.

This engineering combined has created a
helicopter with a set of mind -blowing

capabilities.

So what does it take to fly this
powerful machine?

And how can its engineering help the
Sikorsky Super Stallion

team? make the military's toughest heavy
lift helicopter a reality.

Over 60 years after its design, the S
-64 air crane is still in use today.

Its innovative aft -facing pilot
position allows operators to move heavy

with incredible precision.

Generally speaking, the right seat pilot
is flying the aircraft.

We'll position over near the load to
where the AFC guy can start picking up

we're picking up into his visibility.

He gives the rigging to the guys on the
ground. They'll hook us up.

AFC pilot picks the load up off the
ground out of the fly yard.

As we get close to where it needs to be
set, when the guy in the AF seat can see

where he needs to set the unit, it's
just a verbal exchange of flight

at that point, and the AF seat guy takes
over flying.

The S -64 air crane changed how heavy
lift helicopters are engineered around

world.

Due to its unique capabilities at facing
pilot, its stance designed for external

load, obviously it's still being used
today for different applications.

Doing what I do in the heavy lift
industry, I'd say this is the best tool

there is.

Today, the team has taken the
engineering at the core of the F -64 air

evolved it for modern warfare.

And high in the skies above North
Carolina, Captain Cottrell and his crew

route to tackle the first task of their
training mission.

By using the Super Stallion's external
load hook system,

the crew is able to carry the

four and a half ton howitzer artillery
gun with ease.

This vast machine has taken the heavy
lift helicopter concept to a whole new

level.

The aircraft itself has a single main
rotor with seven main rotor blades. And

then you can see the tail rotor with the
four blades on the tail.

Another unique capability of this
aircraft.

to be able to fold the blades as well as
the tail for shipboard operations in

that smaller footprint.

Additionally, we've got three General
Electric engines that all provide power

and input into that main gearbox to
supply ultimately that lift to the main

rotor head for the 53.

Six tons heavier than the pioneering S
-64 air crane.

but capable of lifting over seven tons
more weight.

The Super Stallion's incredible
capability comes from its three massive

each one producing over 4 ,000
horsepower.

All right, so now that we're coming into
the cabin of the aircraft, you can see,

kind of get a scale for how big the
cabin of the aircraft is.

On either side, we've got seats on
either side. This is where Marines would

with their gear.

It's capable of accommodating up to 55
Marines and their gear internally.

And for external lifts, two innovative
hook systems allow the Super Stallion to

transport vehicles or other aircraft
with ease.

Conducting external operations, we'll
either use our dual -point system, which

are on either side of me here, or we'll
use the single -point system. And what

we'll do is we'll open this door.

And then that hook system, this A -frame
drops down, and we extend that hook

directly underneath the center of the
aircraft in order to conduct those

operations.

All right, so up here is where we have
our pilots.

So you can see the array of our flight
instruments up on the front, and then

kind of what our vantage point looks
like out over the dash and to the sides

the aircraft.

Piloting the 53 is really no different
than any other helicopter.

You've got the same basic controls with
your collective, giving you your up and

down, your cyclic, your fore and aft,
and your lateral motion for the

and then your pedals up front, which
control the yaw.

Up top, we've got our speed control
levers, which control those engines.

And then up front, we've got all of our
instruments that provide us that

information about those engines.

But when it's time for this huge
helicopter to pick up a load, it's not

pilots who guide it into position.

Me as the pilot up front, flying the
aircraft, I'm primarily looking outside

over my shoulder to pick up reference
with the ground.

And then primarily I'm listening to our
crew chiefs in the back.

So we saw the hole in the cabin floor,
which is where the crew chiefs will

position themselves in order to maneuver
the helicopter over the external load.

So really I'm getting through our
intercommunication system all of my cues

where exactly to put those hooks that
are about 20 feet behind me from the

chiefs in the back as I'm looking
outside the aircraft to maintain a

hover.

But carrying big loads with a helicopter
that already weighs more than six

shipping containers creates a problem.

When we're conducting external
operations with an external load

aircraft, It's going to create a higher
fuel burn and therefore less flight

time.

Unladen, the Super Stallion has a range
of over 500 miles.

At maximum lift capacity, this is
reduced to around 100 miles.

To overcome this problem, engineers have
given the Super Stallion a feature

rarely found on helicopters.

One of the key things that facilitates
us being able to conduct helicopter air

refueling is the system that extends
this probe to approximately double the

length that you see right now.

What that does is provides us the
clearance to be able to make contact

refueling asset and be able to take on
that fuel safely.

After rendezvousing with a tanker
midair.

The pilot must guide the Super
Stallion's refueling probe into a drogue

measuring just 25 inches in diameter.

First time I conducted air -to -air
refueling as a 53 pilot, it amazed me

close we have to get to the tanker.

Flying that close to a tanker takes a
lot of crew coordination and precision

flying that close to another aircraft.

The team has designed one of the most
useful aircraft on the battlefield.

But controlling this massive machine
with all three engines at full power

presents a challenge.

The rotor head turns at approximately
180 RPM per minute.

which is a lot of power.

For a solution, they must turn to the
great innovations of the past.

At first glance, you might think that
this aircraft is a helicopter because of

that spinning rotor up there, but
actually it's something slightly

Getting the Marine Corps' biggest pieces
of essential warfighting equipment to

the front line requires a machine with
some incredible capabilities.

This is the CH -53 Echo Super Stallion.

The largest helicopter in the U .S.

military inventory.

It's three times longer than a Cessna
light aircraft and weighs more than two

-16 fighter jets.

Its vast external fuel tanks allow it to
fly over 500 miles without refueling.

at just under 180 miles per hour.

But so much power presents a problem.

How do engineers deal with the forces
created by a nearly 80 -foot diameter

rotor spinning at high speed?

Aircraft maintainer Master Sergeant
Rowe.

It's part of the team responsible for
servicing this complex piece of

engineering.

The CH -53 Echo has three turboshaft
engines, and they produce just under 5

shaft horsepower each.

During operations, the rotor head turns
at approximately 180 RPM per minute,

which is a lot of power.

It's this rapid turning of the main
rotor that produces lift, allowing the

stallion to get off the ground.

But immense forces are created when
seven blades cut through the air at such

high speed, a factor that complicates
the design. As rotors turn, you have

multiple forces working against it, like
torque, lift, and drag.

Without being able to control the
adjustments of blades in flight, it

cause a disparity.

Left unchecked, these forces could
create more lift on one side of the

helicopter than the other, potentially
causing it to roll and ultimately crash.

To ensure that this doesn't happen,
Engineers must look to the aeronautical

pioneers of the past for a solution.

On an airfield just outside London.

I'm already in the air.

I was taking this contraption.

Physicist Andrew Steele is taking to the
skies in a type of flying machine that

revolutionized aviation.

At first glance, you might think that
this beautiful aircraft is a helicopter

because of that enormous spinning rotor
up there.

But actually, it's something slightly
different called an autogyro or

gyrocopter. And it works on a rather
different principle.

in this auto gyro is provided by a
propeller on the back of the aircraft

what that means is that it moves us
forwards as we move forward the air

over that main rotor which spins it
around and around and of course this

aircraft doesn't have any wings so this
is very much like a four pair of wings

spinning around very very rapidly over
our heads keeping us in the air

this machine might seem like the perfect
fusion between aircraft

and helicopter

But unfortunately, when engineers were
trying to construct these things back in

the early 1900s, they ran into a
problem.

That problem was that as you move
forward, you can get a different amount

lift on each side of the rotor blades.
And that can cause the aircraft to roll

and, well, basically crash.

So the engineers needed to find a way to
control those rotor blades more

precisely.

In 1923, Spanish pilot and inventor Juan
de la Cierva came up with an ingenious

solution to this complex problem.

And at the de Havilland Aircraft Museum,
Andrew is getting up close to the

engineering brilliance behind one of his
early designs.

Look at this piece of aviation history.

This is the Sierra C -24.

It was first flown in 1931, and this is
the only version of this model ever

built.

De La Sierra developed the C -24 in
relative secrecy at the Stag Lane

near London.

But before it was a reality, he faced a
problem that plagued engineers for

years.

The problem Siever faced is called
dissimetry of lift.

What that means is a different amount of
lift on different sides of the

aircraft. So let's imagine the aircraft
is moving forward and, of course, the

rotor blades are spinning round.

This blade here that's advancing into
the oncoming air is going to experience

greater amount of lift than this blade
here that's receding away from it.

What that means is you've got a greater
lift on this side than on this side of

the aircraft.

Unless you do something about it, that
means the aircraft's going to roll and

potentially you could crash.

To overcome this problem, Sierva
designed his rotor control system around

hinges.

This system is called a fully
articulated rotor.

And the way that it works is it gives
the blade some freedom to move in

different directions.

There are three hinges in this system.

First, we've got the flapping hinge,
which gives the blade freedom of

to flap up and down a little bit.

Then we've got the drag hinge, which
gives it a little bit of freedom in the

horizontal direction.

And finally, we've got the feather
hinge, which allows the whole thing to

rotate about its axis.

And all of this allows the blade just to
compensate for that change in lift on

either side of the aircraft.

It feels quite counterintuitive that
just letting the blades flap around a

could possibly solve this problem, but
actually it does work to balance the

forces on either side of the gyrocopter.

Back in the air.

This is amazing.

You can do such tight turns in this
thing.

Andrew is getting the opportunity to put
Sierra's game -changing machine to the

test.

What an amazing machine.

Sierra's contribution to aviation was
enormous.

The auto -gyro was groundbreaking, and
the fully articulated controls on rotor

blades were what's allowed helicopters
to exist, as we know them today.

From the prototype for the modern
helicopter to the most advanced and

maneuverable heavy lift chopper the U
.S.

military has ever seen, the team behind
the

CH -53 Echo Super Stallion will need to
take the engineering behind Sierva's

autogyro rotor system and supersize it.

When the U .S.

Marine Corps needs to do some heavy
lifting out on the battlefield, they

this.

The CH -53 Echo Super Stallion.

This vast heavy -lift helicopter can
operate in all weather on all terrains.

Capable of taking off from a ship at sea
with a load weighing up to 16 tons

attached, it can go 100 miles before
delivering its cargo to troops on the

line.

Its potential is unmatched by any other
helicopter in the U .S.

military arsenal.

In the skies above North Carolina,

Captain Cottrell and his crew are
halfway through their training mission

route to drop the artillery pieces to
the Marines on the ground at the landing

zone.

Making this feat of aeronautical
engineering possible is Sierva's fully

articulated rotor system.

And back at the hangar, Master Sergeant
Rowe is getting up close to this vital

component.

The rotor head itself is massive.

It's large enough for multiple people to
sit on.

Everything that happens with the
aircraft goes through the rotor head.

And up here we have the articulated
rotor head. The articulated rotor head

system is a part of the aircraft and
makes it possible to do what the

is capable of.

The Super Stallion's fully articulated
rotor system works in the same way as

autogyros. The drag hinge, flapping
hinge, and feathering hinge all work

together to ensure that the forces
acting on the blades in flight remain

balanced.

Also located on the giant rotor head is
the engineering system that translates

the pilot's controls on the stick into
movement.

So this large component right here is
what we call the swashplate, and this

rotating swashplate here is what
controls all seven blades at the same

each position of movement.

As the pilots are making inputs down in
the cockpit, the power adjustment is

transferred to the rotor head via the
flight controls.

Right here at this rod is where the
input to the blade goes, which changes

pitch of the blade and in turn controls
the aircraft.

As the swashplate moves, the input is
transferred to the blade, changing their

angle. allowing the helicopter to
ascend, descend,

move forwards, backwards, left, and
right.

The response is almost immediate from
the pilot's input to the rotation of the

aircraft at the blades.

For the size of the aircraft, it's
incredibly responsive.

The team may have found a way to control
this huge helicopter, but they now face

a problem that has the potential to
render the super stallion almost

unusable.

Brownout.

The best way I can describe brownout
condition is when you're going and

in a sandy environment.

As the aircraft gets down lower and
closer to the ground, all the loose dirt

dust comes up and engulfs the aircraft.

Caused by downwash from the helicopter's
seven rotor blades, brownout is one of

the most challenging and dangerous
situations pilots and aircraft can face.

It's going to reduce the visibility of
the pilots and crew.

and it can also have an effect on the
operation of the engine by sucking in

and reducing the amount of airflow that
goes into the engine to create power.

The less power you have, the less lift
you're going to be able to provide in

order to keep the aircraft and the crew
in the air and safe.

The problem engineers face is that a
traditional filter would rapidly become

blocked, rendering it useless.

To overcome this challenge, the team has
devised a solution.

This is the EAPS system on the aircraft.

What this does is it acts like a giant
filter for all the air that's going in

and out of the engine.

The strata tubes here are cyclone
filters that, as the air and debris are

in, they spin around.

It goes through into the chamber of the
EAPS.

All the dirt gets sucked out here via
the blower, which allows the clean air

go into the front of the engine.

As dirty air is drawn into the engine,
it's spun into a vortex, causing it to

speed up.

increasing the amount of centrifugal
force acting upon it.

This causes larger pieces of debris to
be pushed out and allows clean air to

pass into the engine.

The EAPS is definitely an important part
of the aircraft.

It helps keep our engines running
efficiently and helps reduce engine

degradation from debris going through.

The Super Stallion has redefined what a
helicopter is capable of.

But now the Marines must turn their
attention to what happens if they come

fire on the battlefield.

Anytime we're out there flying, this
large helicopter is going to present a

target.

For a key solution, they must look to
the great innovations of the past.

If the fuel tank was penetrated by a
projectile or a bullet, the fuel tank

leak fuel, it could catch on fire.

This is the CH -53 Echo Super Stallion.

Capable of transporting up to 55 troops,
or the equivalent weight of over 40

grand pianos.

It's powered by three jet engines that
give this huge aircraft over 70 times

more horsepower than the world's first
mass -produced helicopter.

allowing it to operate anywhere on the
face of the planet.

Today, in the skies above North
Carolina, Captain Cottrell and his crew

nearing the end of their training
mission.

Capable of flying over 500 miles before
needing to refuel, the Super Stallion

has a huge amount of range for its size.

But flying thousands of gallons of a
highly flammable liquid, hundreds of

in the sky presents a dangerous problem.

As you can see, it's a pretty large
helicopter, so anytime we're out there

flying, you know, this larger helicopter
is going to present.

a big target for the enemy.

Really, any damage to the aircraft is
going to impact the air crew's ability

operate the helicopter, and it's going
to impact their decisions in the

continuation of the operation.

But there's one part of the aircraft in
particular that, if damaged, can present

a multitude of problems for the crew on
board.

It's two massive external fuel tanks.

If there's any damage taken to the
aircraft and there's leaking fuel,

that's going to impact the amount of
flight time available.

There's a potential, with that being a
flammable liquid, of that igniting and

causing a hazard to the aircrew.

It's going to be a very serious
situation for the aircrew to have to

To overcome this potentially life -and
-death problem, engineers must look to

the innovations of the past for
inspiration.

At the Palm Springs Air Museum in
California,

pilot Tom Nightingale is examining a
life -saving innovation hidden within

of the most iconic aircraft of World War
II.

Okay, so this is the P -51 Model D
Mustang.

Fantastic fighter.

My favorite airplane of all time.

Airplane is so nice to fly.

It has incredibly balanced controls.

Very, very responsive.

Just a super, super airplane to fly.

Designed to escort Allied bombers
hundreds of miles into enemy territory,

-51 was one of the most capable aircraft
of the era.

But covering such vast distances came
with a dangerous catch.

So if we're standing back here in the
back, we can see relative to the size of

the airplane how big the fuel tanks are.
The fuel tanks are going to be from

about here to about here, all the way
probably here to the front. And there

also an 85 -gallon fuel tank about right
here behind the pilot.

Carrying this much highly flammable fuel
was a necessity, but it presented two

distinct dangers to the pilot at the
controls.

One would be if the fuel tank was
penetrated by a projectile or a bullet,

fuel tank would leak fuel. B, it could
catch on fire.

So in that case, of course, if you had a
fire and you burned a wing off, you'd

have to bail out. Or if it just leaked
fuel and didn't catch fire, you may not

have enough fuel to get back to home
base. So you may end up landing in the

English Channel, landing in France or
somewhere.

To ensure that neither of these
situations happened, engineers employed

ingenious solution.

In 1918, inventor George Murdoch
patented the self -sealing fuel tank, a

-saving idea that would revolutionize
aircraft design.

Constructed from layers of vulcanized
and natural rubber, when penetrated, the

fuel is able to mix with the untreated
parts of the tank, causing the natural

rubber to become a gel plugging the
hole.

Fitted to almost all Allied bombers and
fighter aircraft during World War II,

Murdoch's innovation saved countless
lives.

I

think

the advent of the self -stealing fuel
tank... It definitely had a huge impact

the effectivity of these airplanes and
the safety of the pilot.

And in my opinion, definitely helped
this airplane turn the tide of the war.

To effectively operate the military's
most capable heavy lift helicopter to

and keep crews safe in the process. I'm
amazed to be part of the team that flies

an incredible aircraft.

The Super Stallion team will need to
bring Murdoch's World War II innovation

into the 21st century.

This aircraft really is an incredible
piece of engineering.

At Marine Corps Air Station New River,
George Murdoch's 1918 self -sealing fuel

tank design has been reimagined for
modern warfare and applied to one of the

military's most impressive aircraft.

The CH -53 Echo Sikorsky Super Stallion
Heavy Lift Helicopter.

And it's up to Master Sergeant Rowe and
his team to maintain these essential

pieces of engineering.

The fuel itself is stored here in the
sponson.

The quantity of fuel contained in each
sponson is about 490 gallons.

Inside the sponson, there's a rubber
bladder, which is a self -sealing fuel

tank.

Over 100 years since Murdoch first
patented his idea.

The concept behind the self -sealing
tank remains the same.

In the event of a puncture on one of the
fuel bladders, the self -sealing

compound will take over and seal the
hole to prevent leakage.

These highly classified pieces of
critical engineering are located inside

aircraft's two external sponsons.

Constructed from a specially coated
nylon polymer, they're flexible,

them to withstand vibrations and
movement in flight.

On the inside, a natural rubber layer is
still used.

If the tank is punctured, it makes
contact with the fuel, forming a gel and

plugging the hole within two minutes.

Proven in the field, the self -sealing
fuel tank is a life -saving invention.

I have seen a fuel tank punctured, and
the self -sealing compound does what

designed to do.

This aircraft really is an incredible
piece of engineering.

Back on board the aircraft, after
completing their

training mission, Captain Cottrell and
the crew are touching down back at base.

So the mission went well.

So, you know, doing heavy lift, you got
to watch the gearboxes, the temperatures

and the oil.

Our aircraft today performed very well.
For the Marine Corps, that's what marine

aviation is all about, is supporting the
Marine on the ground.

The Super Stallion has redefined what a
helicopter can do.

Throughout my career, I've been around a
lot of different types of helicopters.

Every day I see the super stallion, I'm
amazed to be part of the team that flies

an incredible aircraft.

By looking to great pioneers of the past
for inspiration, adapting their ideas,

refining their design, and overcoming
monumental challenges.

I'm extremely proud to be involved with
this aircraft.

I had a lot of opportunities and a lot
of different choices when I came in.

This is where I want to be.

Out of all the aircraft and all the
helicopters that are in the Marine

I'm exceptionally proud and humbled to
be a part of the 53 Echo and the Super

Stallion community.

Engineers have constructed something
radical and succeeded in making the

impossible. He figured you four out,
pal.

Possible.

Repair and Synchronization by
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