Original subtitles

I was born in Brooklyn, New York, May 19th, 1946,

and when I was about four, we moved to Florida.

My stepfather was a policeman,

and he was in an organization called the John Birch Society,

which was a right-wing organization.

We're proud members of the John Birch Society.

We're all engaged along with the society in an epic undertaking.

We have got to defeat

the international Communist world control conspiracy.

His job for the John Birch Society was making telephone tapes.

People would dial the word "freedom" on the telephone,

and they would get a recorded message.

The road to tyranny was enacted

in the form of the Civil Rights Bill...

Most of those recorded messages were about how bad the Communists were.

The goal of the international Communist conspiracy

is world domination.

I didn't know what a Communist was,

but I knew they were bad,

and that they were the enemy of the United States,

and that it would be my job

to go in the military when I graduate high school

and stop the commies before they got over here.

Three days after I graduated, I was at Parris Island.

Boot camp, that's where they basically take the civilian out of you

and put the military in you.

They take all your personal belongings away from you,

and they put you in a rack, a bed.

And then the next morning, the lights come on,

people are running up and down the barrack halls,

making a lot of noise,

and they're pushing over the bunk beds and knocking people out of their beds.

I woke up, and I thought I was having a bad dream,

but it was real.

They give you impossible tasks,

and then they punish you for not doing those impossible tasks.

For instance, I was asked to jump.

So I jumped. And the drill instructor said,

"Private Camil, who gave you permission to come down?"

There's a lot of dehumanization in the training.

You run, and you sing songs with a cadence.

One of the songs was... I'm gonna go to Vietnam

I'm gonna kill some Việt Cộng

With a knife or with a gun

Either way, it will be fun

I cannot think of a more cataclysmic event

than the Vietnam War.

For Vietnamese people,

the events that took place were life-defining.

And in terms of the United States,

Vietnam shaped their understanding of their place in the world.

And do all this, and do it right...

The Vietnam War caused a great loss of faith in presidents

and their top foreign policy advisors...

because we saw things just not work out the way they were presented,

and the way they were sold to us.

Prior to the Vietnam War,

for the most part, Americans believed their leaders in Washington, D.C.

After Vietnam,

you had the first decline of what we call the imperial presidency.

This was really when the American people understood

that, you know, our leaders in Washington, D.C.

aren't always doing what we think they're doing.

They don't always tell us

the decision-making that was taking place behind closed doors.

And during the Vietnam War era,

the American people saw that leaders for the first time lied to them.

From a political standpoint,

we could've flushed it down the drain three years ago.

Blame Johnson and Kennedy.

Many of the things that plague our society today,

resentment, alienation, cynicism,

a tendency to mistrust one another, to question one another's motives,

a breakdown in civic institutions,

they have complex causes, no question,

but I think many of them have their roots in the Vietnam era.

America's changing.

Did Vietnam cause it?

It was one of the causes.

It let loose a torrent of emotion in American society.

No more war! No more war!

This was a shredding of the innocence of this country,

the revelation of that.

It was transformative, not only that,

but it-- the anti-war movement woke up a lot of other communities

like, "Hey, we need representation here."

"We need to be heard."

My conscience won't let me go shoot my brother,

or some darker people,

or some poor, hungry people in the mud

for big, powerful America.

And shoot them for what? They never called me "nigger."

I was angry, and I wanted to make sure

when I threw the rock through the window of the Army recruitment office,

I was willing to go to jail for that.

What was happening to us,

our image of ourselves as the last best hope on earth

was shaken.

And if it wasn't shaken,

if it was still strong to millions and millions of Americans,

by the end of the war in Vietnam, it was shattered.

Watch out!

Because viewed a certain way, the United States in Vietnam

was not the last best hope on earth.

It was a violent, militaristic, imperial power.

We all live under the shadow of Vietnam.

We all live with the consequences of Vietnam.

The memory of that war is something

that a lot of people are spending a lot of time trying to erase.

But we can't forget Vietnam.

It's with us today.

When I was a very young boy, perhaps ten,

plucking hairs from my mother's head...

She must have been in her fifties or late forties at that point

in San Jose, California.

And out of nowhere, she tells me that in Vietnam,

she saw a dead child on a doorstep in her neighborhood.

And that child had died because of the famine.

So that was one of the ways by which I started to understand

that the history of the country where I had come from was complicated...

terrible...

unspoken of in so many ways.

Certainly among Americans,

but also to a certain extent among the Vietnamese too.

There's history in the sense of facts.

But there's also history as stories, as narratives.

With the war in Vietnam,

the histories we tell about that are really, really crucial.

For me, as someone who's Vietnamese and American,

I'm deeply aware that in both of these countries,

there are deeply conflicting histories.

That's part of what led to the war in Vietnam.

In the United States, early on,

the American mindset was certainly this Cold War mindset.

There was communism, and there was capitalism,

and there was totalitarianism, and there was democracy.

Either or, us or them, everybody had to choose.

That was the American perspective.

Only a few generations

have been granted the role

of defending freedom in its hour of maximum danger.

I do not shrink from this responsibility. I welcome it.

John F. Kennedy, the 35th President of the United States,

is an extraordinary figure in American political history.

He was a Cold War president.

To some degree, I would say he was a cold warrior.

Kennedy obviously inspired Americans,

through his idealism, through his rhetoric,

to support, fundamentally, his vision for the nation's future.

From the Office of the White House in Washington, D.C.,

NBC Radio now presents an address by the President of the United States,

John F. Kennedy.

Ladies and gentlemen, the President of the United States.

We preach freedom around the world, and we mean it,

and we cherish our freedom here at home.

But he's a very key figure on the Vietnam story.

It's fair to say, uh, it's not his best... chapter.

So when Kennedy comes in, he believes that he inherits

a very, very dangerous geopolitical situation.

You have these two great power centers that are emerging in the Communist world,

the Soviet Union, as well as the People's Republic of China.

What we oppose, fundamentally,

is the aggressive nature of the Communist state,

its unceasing effort to expand wherever it can,

to grow bigger, to take over, to supplant.

It's hard today to recapture the degree to which ordinary Americans,

as well as their leaders,

were concerned about the threat

that Communism represented to the American way of life.

In 1961, the Communists decide to build a wall in Berlin.

At the same time, Cuban leader Fidel Castro

and his Communist brethren

had taken over Cuba.

It looks like the Soviets, the Communists, have a beachhead

in the Western Hemisphere.

And Kennedy inherits a plan to take down Castro.

The Bay of Pigs affair is a disaster for the United States.

It ends in catastrophe.

There are hundreds of deaths.

It's a real black eye for Kennedy.

This is essentially a political war,

because it's a war for men's minds.

And, uh, if we lose the minds

of these people,

we lose the minds of the officer corps and of the civil servants,

we will have lost the war.

The reason that Kennedy starts recording?

It's unclear.

He was the first president to tape extensively.

He recorded about 260 hours of White House conversations.

He got the Secret Service to install it on the QT.

The tape recorder was hidden in the White House basement.

It is a time machine.

It's like if you could just dial up the past

and be a kind of a fly on the wall

as people are making incredibly important decisions.

There are increasing reports, uh,

in Saigon and in Huế, as well,

that students are talking of moving over to the Việt Cộng side.

Kennedy can see that the world is changing.

Who is JFK? Is he really going to be a leader to contend with or not?

Kennedy recognizes the danger of that.

So that's one of the reasons why, by the end of the year,

he recognizes that Vietnam may be the place he needs to take a stand.

I think most Americans,

certainly most white middle-class Americans,

had an idealistic view of their country.

The United States stood for good in the world

against the evil empire of the Soviet Union.

Nobody knew anything about Vietnam.

Nobody knew where it was.

By then, North Vietnam had become completely identified

as a Communist state with a Communist revolution,

supported by China and the Soviet Union.

South Vietnam was going to be a capitalist democracy

modeled on something like the United States

and what it had to offer.

The Democratic Republic of Vietnam was the Communists...

led by Hồ Chí Minh.

He believed sincerely in the Communist cause,

but it's always his country.

The nationalist fervor is what really drives Hồ Chí Minh.

A non-Communist government is in power in Saigon,

led by Ngô Đình Diệm.

A dedicated nationalist,

very courageous figure personally,

a Catholic,

who feels strongly that he knows what's best for South Vietnam,

but he is a dedicated anti-Communist.

And he becomes a very important ally of the United States.

There was a war being carried out mostly by the North Vietnamese.

These are films of South Vietnam

after the destruction of a village by the North Vietnamese.

To those in command of North Vietnam and the Việt Cộng,

the pursuit was a united Vietnam under Hanoi with a Communist government.

To those in South Vietnam, the pursuit was to be left alone.

But they were not left alone.

By 1960, every area of life in the South has become a combat zone.

The state of Vietnam, when Kennedy comes into office,

is that the insurrection in South Vietnam had grown very rapidly.

By January of '61, Kennedy was facing a country

that had already lost much of the control of the countryside.

And the Communists were on the move.

There was concern that if Vietnam fell, then the others would fall also,

you know, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, etc.

I think that was quite generally believed.

This is the domino theory.

If you had one country in Asia fall to Communism,

that it would set off falling dominoes

that would lead all the way to San Francisco.

Mr. President, have you ever had any reason to doubt

this so-called domino theory,

that if South Vietnam falls, the rest of Southeast Asia will go along behind it?

No, I-I believe it. I believe it.

I think that, uh, the struggle is close enough.

China is so large, looms so high on the-- just beyond the frontiers.

If South Vietnam went,

it would not only give them an improved geographic position

for a guerrilla assault on Malaya,

but would also give the impression

that the wave of the future in Southeast Asia

was China and the Communists.

Kennedy's top foreign policy advisors,

Secretary of State Dean Rusk,

Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara,

National Security Advisor McGeorge Bundy,

that trio, along, I think, with senior military brass,

are convinced that South Vietnam's future may depend on increased US involvement.

Top aides who are basically saying,

"Mr. President, we think you need to put American troops into South Vietnam."

They even come up with various schemes

that can be used to introduce American forces sort of under the radar.

In the past year, we've doubled the rate of building Polaris submarines.

The Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara

must be central to this story.

Robert McNamara grew up in California,

went to Berkeley, and then got an MBA at Harvard.

During World War II,

he worked in the units that did bomb spotting.

After he came out of the Army,

he went to work at Ford.

I'm Bob McNamara,

Group Vice President in charge of the car and truck divisions of the company.

He was a very imposing figure in Washington

in terms of his persona

and the degree to which he intimidated people

with his forceful personality and his intelligence.

And he's an architect of the Vietnam War,

of the Americanization of the Vietnam War.

The United States is not at war with the Communists,

but American military advisors are going over to work

with the South Vietnamese military.

Kennedy's advisors tell him that Vietnam is actually in grave danger.

The Communists have made inroads all throughout South Vietnam.

It doesn't look like Diệm's forces are able to really withstand the tide.

While I can report, Mr. President,

definite progress and increasing strength in the government forces,

the progress is slow.

And it's very, very slow,

slower than we would like to see.

When Kennedy comes into office,

there are less than 700 US military advisors in South Vietnam.

Keep your eye on the man ahead of you. Keep him in that gun sight at all times.

But now Kennedy decides to put in more military advisors

to help the South Vietnamese learn

how to fight the war better against the Communists.

I grew up in central New York in the Finger Lakes area

near Ithaca, New York.

I only had a tiny idea that something was going on in Vietnam.

I wanted to go to West Point.

So I decided to just walk downtown,

go to an Army recruiter, and join the Army.

That was, uh, in the spring of 1962,

and I was in Vietnam by the end of the year.

I got the sense that the military had no idea what they were doing.

There had been an assistant secretary of defense

who said, "We need a cover story for what we're doing in South Vietnam."

They were sending in advisors.

What that really meant was they would take a group of South Vietnamese troops,

put them on a helicopter or otherwise transport them to some place,

and push them into a firefight.

Sometimes they turned around and shot at the American helicopters.

So that wasn't working out so well,

turning somebody else into the army that we would direct.

And that's why they kept bringing in

more and more of our own advisors.

But this is not going to be like World War II.

This is an insurgency fight.

This is a war without front lines,

where war is fought in and among the population, not separate from it.

This is the only way that you can be sure

that you always have the equipment which you need

in order to go out and fight the Việt Cộng

and win the battle against the Việt Cộng.

"Việt Cộng" is a contraction between "Vietnam Cộng Sản,"

or Vietnamese Communism.

"Việt Cộng," it would be used in a derogatory way

to describe any Communist enemy in South Vietnam.

So it would be called "VC" for short.

They would become known officially as the National Liberation Front.

And what you see is an escalation of US advisors,

an escalation of military aid, economic aid.

By the end of 1961,

there are roughly 3,000 American military advisors

embedded with the South Vietnamese.

By the end of 1962,

I've seen figures upwards of 11,000.

And by 1963,

there are well over 16,000 US military advisors

in South Vietnam.

This is a dramatic increase.

Almighty God, we stand before thee

as thy children should, acknowledging...

We didn't know much about this operation that was developing.

Kennedy did not allow much information to emerge

of the kind of support that he was sending to Vietnam.

The Vietnam War is a turning point in United States history.

There's a stark difference between the before and the after

when it comes to the Vietnam War.

And one of those turning points is this thing called the credibility gap.

That's a gap between what the government is telling you

and what is actually happening on the ground.

And you feel that you have told the American people

as much as can be told because of the sensitivity

of the-- of the subject? Is that...?

Well, I-- I think I've just indicated what our role is.

We have increased our assistance to the government, its logistics.

We have not sent combat troops there,

though the training missions that we have there,

uh, have been instructed, if they are fired upon, to, uh...

They, uh, would, of course, fire back.

He didn't say that they were reinforcing

the South Vietnamese military with heavy weapons and aircraft.

He didn't say that American so-called "advisors"

would fly the planes going out on bombing missions.

The advisors are not supposed to be fighting the war.

They're only supposed to be assisting, but they're actually fighting as well.

And dying too.

...continue to bless this world with men such as these.

We also learned in that period

that the Kennedy administration had sent guidelines out to the American mission

not to cooperate with the Western press.

The important question

was what was really happening on the ground in South Vietnam.

I arrived in Saigon in June 1962

as a correspondent for the Associated Press.

The roadblocks we encountered were enormous.

The South Vietnamese government enforced strict censorship.

So any story we sent out,

we had to send through the post office.

They did not allow any critical references

or anything that would suggest the inadequacies of the government.

And the US diplomatic and military missions

were totally uncooperative with the media in Saigon.

One of the solutions we found

to get information of what was really going on

was we would simply drive out in the mornings

along the main highways out of Saigon,

looking for any action,

say, helicopter traffic.

We would follow the helicopters along the main roads.

And when we saw dead bodies on the road or wounded people,

we knew we'd found the battle and the action.

To be a great journalist, you gotta get close to the action.

You got to be there.

And Arnett is famous for the stories that he covered

where he was just on top of the action.

It was dangerous, but getting a story was the main thing.

And that's how we got the story about Ấp Bắc.

We didn't know anything about this operation.

The helicopter contacts at the Tân Sơn Nhứt airport called us

and said they're really worried

because they've lost several of their helicopters

in this place, Ấp Bắc.

And we're given a helicopter ride

around the battlefield.

And we went pretty close. You could see bodies on the ground.

And at that point, there'd been five American helicopters shot down,

three American dead.

There were eight or nine injured,

50, 60 South Vietnamese casualties.

It was just a complete mess.

The Battle of Ấp Bắc is extremely important.

US helicopter pilots and US soldiers are directly involved

and noticeably directly involved for the first time in the war.

It is evident that they're flying the helicopters.

So the pretense that the United States is only there

in the capacity of advising Vietnam

can no longer be maintained at the Battle of Ấp Bắc.

General Paul D. Harkins arrived.

He was the chief of the American military mission.

And we walked over to him. We said, "General, how does it look?"

And he said, "Boys...

it was a great victory."

"We've got the VC on the run,

and we're moving in on them right now. Bye."

That was the senseless optimism

that prevailed amongst the senior-most Americans

in Saigon.

Most of the Red guerrilla band was wiped out.

American observers counted at least 80 bodies.

They added that it was the best action Vietnam's 7th Division has yet executed.

US training seems to be paying off.

The military painted the Ấp Bắc engagement as a victory.

But it's a real black eye for the Americans,

as reported in the American media, back home, to the country...

as well as to Kennedy.

When Kennedy sees a picture of an American helicopter on the ground,

you know, "What's going on here? I-- I thought we were doing well."

It's impossible to divorce American politics

from American policy abroad.

Politics is always going to be part of the mix

because that's just baked into the system.

John F. Kennedy is hoping that he can keep this all

on the back burner through the '64 election.

But that hope is dashed when the Buddhist crisis erupts.

Buddhists were a big part of Vietnam's 15 million or so population.

The United States supported South Vietnamese President Ngô Đình Diệm.

He was a Vietnamese Catholic.

And of course he received a lot of support,

I think, from Vietnamese Catholics.

Vietnamese Catholics are a minority throughout Vietnam.

Their Catholicism owes to the French and Portuguese presence

throughout the past few centuries of Vietnamese history.

South Vietnam, under Ngô Đình Diệm, did not have a policy against Buddhism.

He supported the building, the construction of many Buddhist temples.

But by the 1960s,

Diệm's older brother, Ngô Đình Thục, who was a Catholic archbishop,

was clearly promoting Catholicism in South Vietnam.

That gave people the impression

that Diệm was discriminating against Buddhism and Buddhists.

As Mr. Diệm consolidated his power, he became more autocratic.

Among Diệm's people, there is no genuine political opposition.

It is simply not permitted.

He has his brother, Mr. Nhu, who ran the secret police.

Ngô Đình Nhu is younger brother of Ngô Đình Diệm.

Madame Nhu, his wife, was much younger than he was.

She was well-educated under the French.

She became the first lady because Diệm was not married.

Madame Nhu and her husband, Diệm's brother,

live in the presidential palace.

What do you think that the United States can do most now

to help Vietnam?

I think that the most urgent

is to decide not to be intoxicated anymore

by the propaganda, uh, plot

directed by the Communists.

One of the things you see in Diệm's administration

is a concerted campaign to kill off all of the VC in the region.

Việt Cộng...

and anyone who disagrees with him is a VC.

The Buddhist political opposition would fall under this category

as enemy of the state.

There were factions in the Buddhist church.

There was the more militant faction

who wanted Buddhism to play

a bigger political role in the life of the nation.

And they did not like the idea of having a Catholic president for the country.

Ngô Đình Nhu, who is a policeman,

only thing in his mind is torture and kill.

When the South Vietnamese came in our village,

they put a big Ngô Đình Diệm photo and a cross

right inside our temple, or our altar.

They made us bow to Ngô Đình Diệm,

and they talking about him as just like a god.

Like he is somebody that's so important to us.

We don't care. We just want to be peaceful.

We want to worship our ancestors, hang up the Buddhist flag.

But the next thing we know that, everybody's killed.

They killed the leaders in the village.

They killed the monks. They buried them alive.

So they killed

whoever they think that's Việt Cộng.

And so, more them doing that,

the more our family and 90% of the villagers,

yeah, we join the Việt Cộng, we stand up and we fight.

And so daytime, we praise the Ngô Đình Diệm.

The nighttime, we praise Hồ Chí Minh.

By 1963, you had all-out war

between the Catholic leadership and their Buddhist majority.

In South Vietnam,

I demonstrated against the government.

Not to overthrow the-- the system of government that we have,

but to establish a constitutional order for the country.

In Huế, the decision was made by the security forces

to push the protesters back.

And in that melee,

several grenades were thrown.

Eight Buddhists were killed and a lot injured.

That was a catastrophic mistake.

The anger was severe, strong, boiling.

Boiling.

Protests began on the streets of Saigon within a week or two.

There were thousands of people massed along the streets of this parade.

And as they came along Phan Đình Phùng Street,

a large, old automobile that had been part of the parade stopped.

This elderly man was led out of the vehicle by a younger monk,

taken to the center of the street where he sat cross-legged

on the street.

And the assistant poured a liquid over him.

And, uh, this monk lit a match and...

...was in flames.

One Buddhist monk died

to figure out how could he help to save the people.

Only way he can do is to give himself up.

Madame Nhu was outspoken on everything.

When the Buddhist crisis was erupting

and the immolations by fire began,

she called them "monk barbecues."

What have the Buddhist leaders done comparatively?

The only thing they have done,

they have, uh, barbecued one of their monks,

uh, whom they have intoxicated,

whom they have abused the confidence.

And even that barbecuing was done, uh,

not even with self-sufficient means.

Because they-- they used, uh, imported, uh, gasoline.

You love your country and you say those things?

It doesn't heal.

It break up the faith of the people.

There is a difference between how President Diệm

and his brother Nhu looked at the Buddhist protests.

Diệm himself was attempting to actually talk to the Buddhists

and sort of reach a compromise.

It was Nhu that sent the police and the military

into the pagoda raids in late August.

They start raiding the pagodas.

They start arresting more people.

Waging war on their own people.

This clearly alarmed Washington,

who was supporting the regime of President Ngô Đình Diệm.

The heart of the matter is

that they've established a police state,

and that they're interfering with the liberties of the people,

and that you have resentments

born of that.

- Right, yeah. - Right?

The United States is watching in horror as this is playing out

in the summer of 1963,

that they are telling Diệm, "You need to stop raiding these pagodas."

In Saigon, President Ngô Đình Diệm's regime

has accused the United States government of being off base

in denouncing the military crackdown on his Buddhist opponents.

President Diệm, from my standpoint,

was the person who rebuilt the country.

But at his side, Ngô Đinh Nhu brought about events

which made Diệm look bad.

Dissent began to brew from within the military ranks.

You have to assume

that Diệm has felt that there's going to be a coup against him

for probably the last couple of months.

The Guiding Light will not be seen today

in order to bring you the following CBS News special report.

Good day from New York.

South Vietnam is in a state of revolt today,

and there are unconfirmed reports

that President Ngô Đình Diệm's government has been overthrown.

High-ranking military generals under Dương Văn Minh carry out the coup.

Diệm and Nhu were able to escape the presidential palace

by way of secret doorways into tunnels.

Eventually, they would regroup in a Catholic church.

They were promised safe passage back to the palace

and to eventually leave the country.

They sent a convoy to Cha Tam Church to pick up Mr. President

and Mr. Advisor to bring them back.

Captain Nhung was Lieutenant General Dương Văn Minh's closest bodyguard.

Later, it was learned that while sitting in the armored vehicle,

he used a dagger blade

to stab Ngô Đình Nhu once, causing him to collapse on his seat.

He was about to stab once more, but he saw Ngô Đình Diệm on the side

slightly leaning toward him, so he stabbed him once instead.

He stabbed them one more time each,

then shot them with his pistol.

That is what's called a "mercy shot."

During the entire coup period,

Madame Nhu was in the United States.

That probably saved Madame Nhu's life.

Treason does not pay.

And nobody can rule Vietnam,

can rule Vietnam with just money and puppets.

And all those whom some of the Americans intend to settle and to tutor,

for how long will they hold power

if they ever hold power?

The new leaders, General Dương Văn Minh

and Premier Nguyễn Ngọc Thơ,

want immediate support from the people and recognition from the West.

There were a series of declassifications,

and we now know that the Kennedy administration,

in particular President Kennedy, had started courting with this idea

of removing Diệm as early as August of '63.

So the events that transpired in the beginning of November, they knew.

There's no doubt

John F. Kennedy was the decision-maker on Vietnam

in those fateful weeks in 1963

when the decision was made to essentially give the green light

to the coup-plotters in Saigon.

One interesting question is whether John F. Kennedy understood

that Diệm and Nhu would likely be killed.

The South Vietnamese never received

any sort of caution from the US government

that Diệm or Nhu or anybody else in the Ngô family was to be protected,

held harmless, allowed safely to go into exile.

One of the things that I think is quite clear as a historian

is that the coup-plotters knew that if Diệm lives,

that there would be constant coups, and the Americans knew that.

The Kennedy administration has blood on their hands.

Some of the most poignant things you can hear from Kennedy

is what he dictated on the Monday morning after the coup.

I, uh, feel that we must bear

a good deal of responsibility for it,

beginning with our cable of early August

in which we suggested the coup.

I was, uh, shocked by the death of Diệm and Nhu.

I met Diệm with Justice Douglas many years ago.

He was a... an extraordinary character.

While he... became increasingly difficult in the last months,

nevertheless, over a ten-year period, he held his country together,

maintained its independence under very adverse conditions.

He...

The way he was killed made it particularly... abhorrent.

Ngô Đình Diệm was a controversial figure for many different kinds of reasons,

but I think that for some of the South Vietnamese,

he represented the possibility of nationalist independence,

a country led by a Vietnamese president.

The politics of this was very, very complicated obviously,

because South Vietnam was a politically diverse place.

There were people of different religious backgrounds

and so on.

But he was controversial to different populations,

again, for different reasons.

Americans were opposed to him

because they thought he stood in the way of their particular policies.

At least for some Vietnamese Catholics,

he was a revered political leader,

nationalist figure, whose assassination was a tragic event.

When President Ngô Đình Diệm got assassinated, my father came home.

He said that, "It not gonna be a good time anymore."

"It can be a lot of chaos."

"Nobody can deal with Hồ Chí Minh,

can deal with the Communists, like President Ngô Đình Diệm."

What happened after the coup was a series of coups,

kind of a revolving-door government in Saigon,

where various generals decided that they would be the best people

to run the war against the Việt Cộng.

So it was a period of instability in Saigon.

Several weeks after Ngô Đình Diệm and Ngô Đình Nhu

are assassinated,

the United States goes through one of the most tragic days

in presidential history.

Good afternoon, ladies and gentlemen.

You'll excuse the fact that I'm out of breath, but...

about 10 or 15 minutes ago,

a tragic thing, from all indications at this point, has happened

in the city of Dallas.

There has been an attempt, as perhaps you know now,

on the life of President Kennedy.

He was wounded in an automobile

driving from Dallas Airport into downtown Dallas,

along with Governor Connally of Texas.

They've been taken to Parkland Hospital there,

where their condition is as yet unknown.

It appears as though something has happened in the motorcade route.

Something, I repeat, has happened in the motorcade route.

We just have a report from our correspondent,

Dan Rather in Dallas,

that he has confirmed that President Kennedy is dead.

Walter, we have some additional film taken at and near Parkland Hospital,

where President John Kennedy died.

Uh, this film is in rough cut form.

These are some of the witnesses in the area of the shooting.

There was a great deal of disbelief at first

that the President had even been shot.

To be there that day

was pretty much what was reflected around the country.

The first reports were he was shot.

Then it was confirmed he was-- he was dead.

Late afternoon editions...

The Kennedy assassination was a shock to the American psyche.

We believed that those kinds of things didn't happen in our country anymore.

Women here in shock. Some have fainted.

Grown men, Secret Service men, standing by the emergency room,

tears streaming down their face.

There's only one word to describe the picture here

and that's "grief," and much of it.

If you look at Kennedy's even opponents,

many of them in the United States,

even for them, this was a-- a monumental blow.

Today, millions of people throughout the world

are trying to find words adequate to express

their grief and their sympathy to his family.

...the souls of all the faithful departed,

through the mercy of God, rest in peace.

In the name of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, amen.

If we engage in so-called "what if" speculation,

though we will never know for sure,

I think that the best argument is that a surviving Kennedy

would have avoided large-scale escalation in Vietnam.

I think his doubts went deeper

in terms of what American military power could do.

And maybe most important,

Kennedy would have reached the critical decisions on Vietnam

in his second and final term.

And at that point, he could no longer run for re-election.

Anyone can speculate all they want about what he might have, should have done

had he been re-elected.

But all we have is the record.

And the record is that President Kennedy got us involved in Vietnam

and escalated the war,

and was escalating the war when he was assassinated.

And it's very hard for me to believe that he wouldn't have carried on the war.

As always, democracy finds its strength

in the continuity of the presidency.

Lyndon B. Johnson becomes the 36th President of the United States,

just 99 minutes after his predecessor's life

had ebbed away.

Lyndon Johnson became president.

But in that first year,

he kept referring to himself as "the accidental president."

When it came to domestic politics and domestic policy,

he was truly in command.

But on Vietnam, he was insecure.

He didn't really understand this issue.

President Johnson started recording his phone calls

using a Dictabelt system of his own immediately.

And so we have a great record of Lyndon Johnson's phone calls.

I would like to have, for this period when everybody is asking me,

something in my own words.

I can say, "Well, here are-- here are the alternatives,

and here's our theory, and here's what we're basing it on."

LBJ basically, by his own admission,

didn't know what he was doing.

And he was very poorly advised by his advisors,

especially McNamara.

I do think, Mr. President,

that it would be wise for you to say as little as possible.

The frank answer is, we don't know what's going on out there.

The signs I see coming through the cables

are-- are disturbing signs.

President Johnson always had something of a vulnerability

about his education.

When he came to the presidency, he was surrounded

by President Kennedy's hand-picked advisors.

And President Johnson,

I know having talked to him, thought to himself,

"Geez, I just graduated from this small teacher's college

in South Texas,

and I have around me the best brains in the country

that President Kennedy brought on."

And the Kennedy advisors, make no mistake,

were almost unanimous in saying, "You've got to stay in Vietnam."

There's a recognition on the part of senior US officials

in the summer of 1964

that South Vietnam is in deep trouble.

The insurgency is continuing to gain strength.

There is infighting among South Vietnamese officials.

And something needs to happen.

Arguably, the United States enters the month of August

looking for a pretext to flex American muscle.

In a limited fashion.

The American war in Vietnam began

in the summer of 1964

with political lies

based on false intelligence.

USS Maddox, one of the United States Navy destroyers,

was conducting signals intelligence patrols

in the Gulf of Tonkin along the North Vietnamese coast.

They were up deep into enemy territory above the 17th parallel.

Information gathering, intelligence gathering

through, uh, electronic eavesdropping.

Unbeknownst to the Maddox,

the South Vietnamese were conducting commando raids closer to the coast,

firing weapons and mortars against North Vietnamese installations.

On the afternoon of August 2nd, 1964,

three North Vietnamese torpedo vessels come out and engage the USS Maddox.

Three North Vietnamese patrol boats approached the Maddox,

which both engaged them with fire

and called for air support from a nearby naval carrier.

The Maddox sustained damage in the form of one bullet hole.

All three of the North Vietnamese torpedo vessels

are struck.

One is completely destroyed.

The other vessels managed to drift back to their bases with some heavy damage.

They fired at us. We responded immediately.

And we took out one of their boats, put the other two running.

We kept... We're putting our boats right there. We're not running--

Our instructions are to destroy--

That's right.

Now I want to leave an impression on the people we talk to over here

that we're gonna be firm as hell.

We oughtn't do anything

that the national interest doesn't require,

but we sure ought to always leave the impression

that if you shoot at us, you're going to get hit.

In order to demonstrate US resolve,

the military command center, and as well as the commander-in-chief,

order the Maddox to return the next day,

now accompanied by USS Turner Joy, which is another US military destroyer.

Weather goes south on them very fast.

Wave heights are now at about six feet.

Low visibility. Rain squalls moving through the area.

The tensions were pretty high.

When the US Navy destroyers start seeing radar signals approaching the vessels...

there's some confusion because the blips are moving really fast,

and they're coming from different directions

and then sometimes disappearing.

But also, the sonar operators are starting to hear

propeller noises and torpedo noises in the water.

And so the crew and the officers on board the two ships

were getting pretty nervous that they were under attack.

Mr. President, we, uh, just got a, uh, report

from the commander of that task force out there

that they have sighted two unidentified vessels

and three unidentified prop aircraft in the vicinity of the destroyers.

Uh, what else do we have out there?

We have ample forces to respond

not only to these attacks on the destroyers

but also to retaliate,

should you wish to do so, against targets on the land.

The message traffic back and forth was, "Give me proof

that there was a torpedo there."

"Give me some flotsam, a cushion,

anything that would say that there was a torpedo boat."

We did not see one torpedo boat.

At this point, there was some uncertainty

about whether or not an attack had actually occurred.

This is now late at night on August 4th.

And the signals intelligence on board the ships pick up messages

from the North Vietnamese Navy that they had struck

some of the enemy vessels that were in the area.

And it validates everything that they had suspected at this point.

I think I might get, uh, Dean Rusk and Mac Bundy, have 'em come over here,

and we'll go over these retaliatory actions.

I was attached to a squadron of A-4 Skyhawks.

The next thing I know, I was going on a mission.

Our targets were along the coast of Vietnam,

the naval bases on the northern part,

like around Hải Phòng and north towards China.

I went in and hit my target.

And as I was exiting, I got hit.

And I pulled the ejection curtain.

I felt the chute pop open.

And I was in the water.

And as I tried to swim away,

looked around, and here was a fishing boat.

And it had about three rifles... pointing at me.

They hauled me aboard. They stripped me.

They wrapped me up with a rope like a-- a knot.

That was the beginning of a... a long captivity.

The Pentagon said two pilots were lost.

One was reported to be a prisoner of the Reds.

All this message traffic and all these accounts were top secret

and kept classified for the better part of about 40 years.

But as it turns out,

the attack on August 4th never happened.

Their radars reflecting off the sea waves and the low cloud level...

the sonar operators were picking up

their own rudder noises and own propeller noises.

As President Johnson later said,

"The damn sailors were shootin' at flying fish."

As for the North Vietnamese message,

they were transmitting

a follow-up message to the August 2nd attack

in which they had the initial confrontation

just with USS Maddox.

So it was not about the events

that supposedly occurred on the night of August 4th.

I think Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara had doubts

about the attack on August 4th.

But instead of being honest and truthful about what happened,

McNamara misrepresents it to Congress

as well as misrepresents it to members of the press.

They were reporting they were avoiding torpedoes

and that they had sunk one of the attacking patrol craft.

And so he really opens the door for President Johnson to escalate the war.

Even though attacks didn't transpire on August 4th, 1964,

LBJ used the pretense of these attacks to go to Congress

to seek what we now know as a blank check to go to war in South Vietnam.

That is the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.

In each house, the resolution was promptly examined in committee

and reported for action.

In each house, the resolution was passed on Friday last,

with a total of 502 votes in support and two opposed.

The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution is unusual

because it is not a declaration of war,

but it gave full authority to the United States

to assist the South Vietnamese government

in defending its territories from aggression from the North.

To any armed attack, our forces will reply.

To any in Southeast Asia who ask our help in defending their freedom,

we're going to give it.

I have ordered to Vietnam the Air Mobile Division

and certain other forces which will raise our fighting strength almost immediately.

Operation Rolling Thunder was a strategic bombing campaign

against North Vietnam...

...to use massive amounts of air power

to break the enemy's willpower.

In public, the Johnson administration,

like the Kennedy administration,

was officially optimistic about their ability to win the war.

Even though they entertained doubts at the highest level.

It's going to be difficult for us to, very long, prosecute effectively

a war that far away from home.

I arrived about a week after I was shot down.

I was the first American pilot captured in North Vietnam.

I was flown-- flown my last mission on, uh, 5 August 1964.

I was, uh, put into a seven-foot by seven-foot cell

with high walls and, uh, a little ventilation window.

The concrete beds had wooden blocks like-- like leg restraints.

Sitting there five, six days without sleep, food, and water.

Some guys didn't survive.

Hanoi has used the prisoners of war

for its propaganda purposes

almost from the day the first captive was shot down

on the first day of US bombing of the North.

Then there was the Hanoi March.

They took 50 of us.

They loaded us up in trucks.

And the next thing we know, we were on the perimeter of a park.

And they started marching us.

As far as you could see is thousands of people.

They were shouting.

North Vietnam paraded this group of prisoners

through the streets of Hanoi.

A parade designed to depict them as humbled and impotent air pilots.

Somebody hit me, and I staggered down.

I remember looking at the guys ahead of me,

that they were getting the hell beat out of 'em.

It just went on and on,

and I didn't know if we were going to make it.

And I realized that these are not good-- good times coming up.

The longer we stayed, the worse it got.

It was the first real shock Americans got of what the reality of war is.

What's our role?

What does it mean to be the United States?

What does it mean to be an American?

To be the most powerful nation on the globe?

Vietnam forced a reckoning around those questions.

In the United States, we call it the Vietnam War.

But in Vietnam, they call it the American War.

There are vastly different interpretations of the same set of facts.

To the West, it's just a movie.

Put it on the camp!

A John Wayne movie.

But to the village, it's real.

It's just so sad and suffering,

the people who have nothing to do with the politics.

Everybody killing everybody.

Ooh, a storm is threatening

My very life today

If I don't get some shelter

Ooh yeah, I'm gonna fade away

War, children

It's just a shot away It's just a shot away

War, children

It's just a shot away It's just a shot away

Ooh, see the fire is sweepin'

Our very street today

Burns like a red coal carpet

Mad bull lost your way

War, children

Yeah

It's just a shot away It's just a shot away

War, children

It's just a shot away It's just a shot away

Rape, murder

It's just a shot away It's just a shot away

Rape, murder, yeah

It's just a shot away It's just a shot away

Rape, murder

It's just a shot away It's just a shot away

Yeah

Mmm, the floods is threatening

My very life today

Gimme, gimme shelter

Or I'm gonna fade away...