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An invisible danger
hurtles towards Earth
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at close to the speed of light.
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These are intergalactic alien
interlopers on our Milky Way.
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Cosmic rays.
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Getting hit by
a cosmic ray is like
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getting hit by a cosmic bullet.
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Cosmic rays are billions of
times more energetic than any
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other types of particles,
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vastly more energetic
than anything
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we can even create in
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a laboratory, in a nuclear
fusion reactor, anywhere.
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They pierce spaceships,
putting our astronauts
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in danger.
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But the source of their power
is a mystery.
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Are they coming from
other galaxies?
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Are they coming from things in
between the galaxies?
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Where do cosmic rays come from?
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Truth is,
the most powerful ones,
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we haven't got a clue.
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The race is on
to solve the mystery
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of the fastest particles
in the universe.
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If I were to make a list
of the dangers of space,
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it would be a long list.
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You know, there's hard vacuum,
huge swings in temperatures,
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micro meteorites,
all kinds of things.
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But probably at the very top
of that list, cosmic rays.
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These space invaders
are not what they seem.
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When you hear the name
cosmic rays,
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you might think
it's like a beam,
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like a laser beam of light.
No, no, no, no, no, no.
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It's a tiny little
death particle.
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To fight them,
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we must first understand them.
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April 2019.
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NASA's Parker probe flies
closer to the sun than
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ever before.
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We know the sun produces some of
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the cosmic rays that fill
the solar system,
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but we don't know how.
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Our sun looks like
a beautiful glowing orb,
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bringing energy and light to
Earth and allowing life
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to thrive.
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But if you look at it up close,
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you'll see a tumultuous storm
of events.
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The amount of energy
the sun is emitting every
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second is the equivalent of
100 billion one megaton bombs.
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It's a dangerous neighborhood.
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Suddenly,
the probe is caught head-on
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in a powerful blast.
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It's perfectly
positioned to monitor
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the outburst from the inside.
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The entire outer
third of the sun is a boiling
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cauldron, and tied up in that
plasma are magnetic fields.
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They get tied and twisted,
and energy is stored in them,
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so they rise towards
the surface, and there,
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they rearrange, they reconnect,
they twist, they spin.
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When the magnetic
field lines snap,
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energy bursts out.
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And sometimes, that energy
release is explosive
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and that's what
results in flares,
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which are these huge
bursts of light.
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The probe discovers
that after a solar flare,
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the sun's surface stores
electrically charged particles.
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But sometimes, there's
a second explosion called
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a coronal mass ejection,
releasing superheated,
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electrically charged gas
called plasma.
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These giant balls of plasma
go flying off the surface of
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the sun,
and in those balls of plasma
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are contained
these charged particles.
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The charged particles move
fast, but they hit a roadblock,
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a cloud of
slower-moving particles
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that always surrounds
the sun, the solar wind.
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Well, the coronal mass ejection
is moving into the solar wind
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much faster
than the wind is moving.
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So it sort of runs into it
and creates this shockwave
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and ends up piling up
particles at the edge.
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The shockwave and particles
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slam together...
In the collision,
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the particles steal
energy and speed,
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like a baseball accelerating
off a bat.
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The particles transform into
something far more powerful...
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A solar cosmic ray.
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They're light,
but they're moving
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incredibly fast.
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The Earth is on average
93 million miles away from
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the sun, and these guys reach
us in about an hour.
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That's 93 million miles an hour.
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That's pretty fast.
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The cosmic rays speed
towards Earth.
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We're under attack.
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Cosmic rays are, by far,
the most energetic
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particles that we know
to exist in the universe.
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And when things with very high
energy, no matter how small
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they are, impact something else,
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they deposit that energy, right,
and so cosmic rays
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can be very dangerous.
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Solar cosmic rays aren't
the only threat we face.
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Other space bullets arrive
from beyond our solar system.
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There are different kinds of
cosmic rays,
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just like there are different
kinds of bullets.
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At the lowest end
of the spectrum
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are these solar cosmic rays.
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These are like the BBs,
and when a BB hits you,
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it might sting for a little
bit, but you're not gonna get
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too worried about it.
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A bigger concern...
Galactic cosmic rays.
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They travel faster
and have more energy.
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If solar rays are like BBs,
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the galactic cosmic rays are
like rifle bullets.
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They're far more dangerous.
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They're moving a lot faster.
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But they're also more rare.
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Faster still are
the universe's most wanted...
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Ultra-high-energy cosmic rays.
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If you thought galactic
cosmic rays were bad, it's
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because you haven't met
an ultra-high-energy cosmic ray.
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These are the biggest, baddest,
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meanest cosmic rays in
the universe.
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These ultra-high-energy
cosmic rays
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are like hypersonic missiles.
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They are screaming,
and they come from
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the most energetic events in
the universe.
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The ultra-high-energy
cosmic missiles
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are the rarest
but also the swiftest.
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These cosmic ray particles
are moving fast.
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These mysterious particles
are moving incredibly
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close to the speed of light.
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I'm not talking about
99 percent the speed of light.
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They're moving through space at
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like 99.999...
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- 9999...
- 9999...
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- 99999...
- 999999...
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99999... 21 nines.
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That's fast.
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That's wild. That's scary.
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All three types of cosmic rays
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are racing
through the solar system.
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If I were to hold up a golf
ball in the middle of space,
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almost 100 cosmic rays pass
through that golf ball every
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single second.
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It's a deadly hail of
particle bullets,
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and out in space,
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our astronauts are caught in
the crossfire.
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Cosmic rays represent one of
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the greatest dangers for
human space flight.
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NASA plans to send
astronauts back to the moon,
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where radiation levels
-OVER RADIO: Lift-off.
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From cosmic rays are
200 times greater than
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on Earth,
and that is just the start.
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One of NASA's big goals is to
send humans to Mars,
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and that is a long way away,
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at least a six-month journey,
and more often,
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about a nine-month journey.
That's a big problem.
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I am hoping that one day, I can
go to Mars as an astronaut,
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but I'm definitely afraid of
cosmic rays,
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and the more that I read
about it,
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the bigger of a threat it seems.
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So I think that NASA and other
space organizations
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are going to need to work on
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how to protect
their astronauts in these
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really dangerous situations.
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Only one group
of people have been
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exposed to these high levels
of cosmic rays,
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the crew members of
the Apollo missions
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July 1969.
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That's one small step for man,
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one giant leap for mankind.
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One of the astronauts,
Buzz Aldrin,
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sees something strange.
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During Apollo 11,
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Buzz Aldrin reported
seeing tiny little
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flashes sometimes
when he was looking around.
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That's pretty weird.
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But what's weirder
is that he saw them
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when his eyes were closed.
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Later missions also report
seeing odd flashes of light.
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A streak in
the lower left side of the...
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left eye, moving down.
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The astronauts describe
the flashes as spots,
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streaks, and clouds.
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Apollo 15 Commander David
Scott reported seeing one that
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was blue with a white cast,
like a blue diamond.
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What's happening is that
a cosmic ray is entering
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the eyeball
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and then striking molecules
and giving off
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a flash of light.
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An alternative theory is that
it triggers the layer of
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sensitive cells in your retina,
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so you perceive
a streak of light even though
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no light ever actually existed.
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The cosmic rays
cause long-term damage.
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Inside of the eye's lens,
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there are these fiber cells
that are transparent.
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Well, when a cosmic ray
travels through them,
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it can damage those cells
and make them cloudy,
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causing cataracts.
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When NASA examines
ROWE: the astronauts' helmets,
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they find tiny tracks etched
through them,
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evidence of cosmic ray impacts.
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00:10:07,539 --> 00:10:10,642
When we say that cosmic rays
are like tiny little bullets,
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we're not joking around.
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And some of these burrowed all
the way through the helmet,
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which means it ended up
in the astronaut's brain,
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which just makes me feel weird
to think about.
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What might that
long-term radiation
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do to your brain,
to your ability to reason
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and problem solve in one of
the most dangerous environments
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that humanity has ever
placed itself?
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The farther we venture
from our home planet,
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the more danger we face.
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Cosmic rays, highly
energetic space particles,
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may be the most serious threat
to human space exploration.
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The Hollywood
conception of outer space is
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it's full of dangers like aliens
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wielding ray guns or black holes
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or asteroid showers.
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00:11:09,602 --> 00:11:11,279
But in reality, the biggest
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danger facing astronauts
is invisible.
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It's the cosmic radiation.
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Cosmic rays damaged
ROWE: Apollo astronauts' eyes
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after just a few days' exposure.
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00:11:22,816 --> 00:11:26,650
A one-way trip to Mars takes
nine months.
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Future missions are going to be
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spending much longer times
in space,
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which means we really need to
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00:11:31,758 --> 00:11:34,703
consider how cosmic rays will
impact us.
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We don't understand
all the long-term effects
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00:11:38,831 --> 00:11:42,801
from a steady rain of
cosmic rays,
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but the astronauts are gonna
have to deal with it.
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To find out more,
scientists bombarded
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human cells with manmade
cosmic ray particles.
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They discovered cosmic rays
physically cut through DNA,
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chopping it apart.
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00:12:00,721 --> 00:12:04,755
Damage to DNA in your cell is
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by far the worst kind,
because your DNA
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is the cell's operating
manuals, the blueprints
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so the cell knows how it
should be functioning normally.
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00:12:15,802 --> 00:12:17,836
You can trigger that cell to
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turn tumorous,
to start producing cancer.
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00:12:23,110 --> 00:12:26,288
In 2019, scientists
ROWE: took the experiment
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00:12:26,312 --> 00:12:29,114
further and simulated
a trip to Mars...
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for mice... For six months,
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00:12:32,619 --> 00:12:34,652
they blasted the rodents with
a steady
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00:12:34,721 --> 00:12:38,756
stream of lab-made
cosmic ray particles.
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The experiment found
profound alterations
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00:12:42,528 --> 00:12:45,429
to the mice's normal behavior.
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They learned new tasks
much more slowly.
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00:12:49,201 --> 00:12:50,580
Their memory was affected,
and they
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00:12:50,604 --> 00:12:53,638
forgot things they had
already learned.
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00:12:53,706 --> 00:12:55,440
They were more anxious
and prone to
251
00:12:55,542 --> 00:12:58,888
giving up on tasks
they'd normally complete.
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If you put some of these
irradiated mice into
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00:13:01,447 --> 00:13:05,595
a swimming test, rather than
trying to swim to safety,
254
00:13:05,619 --> 00:13:07,217
many of them just simply
gave up.
255
00:13:09,054 --> 00:13:10,721
This is important,
because we need
256
00:13:10,823 --> 00:13:13,101
our astronauts to be
fully functioning.
257
00:13:13,125 --> 00:13:16,628
The reason why you do
crewed missions is because
258
00:13:16,730 --> 00:13:20,831
the human brain is much better
than any computer.
259
00:13:20,933 --> 00:13:23,134
If even one of them
has a problem,
260
00:13:23,202 --> 00:13:26,203
it can even put the mission
and their lives in jeopardy.
261
00:13:27,706 --> 00:13:31,109
Other studies discover
cosmic rays can accelerate
262
00:13:31,211 --> 00:13:35,312
aging, alter genes, and cause
cardiovascular disease.
263
00:13:37,049 --> 00:13:38,850
That sounds bad enough,
264
00:13:38,951 --> 00:13:41,952
but there's
a more immediate danger.
265
00:13:42,022 --> 00:13:44,767
When cosmic rays
penetrate spaceships,
266
00:13:44,790 --> 00:13:47,903
they can fry electronic
systems, and that's enough to
267
00:13:47,927 --> 00:13:49,561
jeopardize a mission.
268
00:13:49,629 --> 00:13:54,876
Our operations in space depend
on electronics, on computers.
269
00:13:54,900 --> 00:13:59,604
And the worst case scenario is
that the wrong cosmic ray comes
270
00:13:59,706 --> 00:14:01,639
at the wrong time and hits
271
00:14:01,740 --> 00:14:06,344
the wrong circuit, and it leads
to a cascading series of
272
00:14:06,446 --> 00:14:10,014
failures that can totally
jeopardize a mission.
273
00:14:11,051 --> 00:14:13,918
We see evidence of this
onslaught in mission cameras.
274
00:14:15,254 --> 00:14:17,120
Even when we have
a detector in space
275
00:14:17,256 --> 00:14:18,822
like on
the Hubble Space Telescope,
276
00:14:18,924 --> 00:14:20,357
if you saw a raw image,
277
00:14:20,460 --> 00:14:23,061
it doesn't look like
the beautiful images
278
00:14:23,129 --> 00:14:24,328
that are shown to the public.
279
00:14:24,463 --> 00:14:26,865
They're just crossed with
cosmic rays, and those
280
00:14:26,966 --> 00:14:31,201
cosmic rays are destroying
that detector slowly over time.
281
00:14:33,105 --> 00:14:36,039
So how can we protect
astronauts and their equipment?
282
00:14:37,443 --> 00:14:39,711
The obvious answer is to
add shielding.
283
00:14:41,715 --> 00:14:45,048
It's one thing to say
like, oh, just add more stuff.
284
00:14:45,150 --> 00:14:48,820
But have you seen rocket
launches and how hard they are,
285
00:14:48,922 --> 00:14:51,822
how expensive it is to get
stuff up into space?
286
00:14:53,225 --> 00:14:55,960
NASA does have a plan.
287
00:14:56,062 --> 00:14:58,763
The spacecraft for the Artemis
moon landing mission
288
00:14:58,831 --> 00:15:02,033
will be packed for optimum
cosmic ray protection.
289
00:15:02,101 --> 00:15:05,035
So one of the ways
you can get around
290
00:15:05,138 --> 00:15:08,306
the mass limit is
to basically get dual use
291
00:15:08,408 --> 00:15:10,041
out of everything...
Your supplies,
292
00:15:10,110 --> 00:15:13,788
your fuel, your water, and you
can use those as shielding.
293
00:15:13,812 --> 00:15:15,791
But it's not that simple.
294
00:15:15,815 --> 00:15:18,995
Just as more powerful bullets
penetrate armor,
295
00:15:19,019 --> 00:15:22,352
more energetic cosmic rays
pierce the shielding
296
00:15:22,422 --> 00:15:24,000
on spaceships.
297
00:15:24,024 --> 00:15:26,124
The solar ones...
Yeah, you can just put up some
298
00:15:26,259 --> 00:15:28,960
material, some shielding, and
it'll generally block them.
299
00:15:29,062 --> 00:15:31,863
But the higher energy ones,
they can just burrow
300
00:15:31,998 --> 00:15:33,197
on through.
301
00:15:33,232 --> 00:15:37,302
If they hit one of the atoms
in the shielding that is
302
00:15:37,403 --> 00:15:38,836
protecting our astronauts,
303
00:15:38,937 --> 00:15:42,039
it can create
a shower of particles.
304
00:15:42,140 --> 00:15:44,709
That radiation
particle might have missed
305
00:15:44,811 --> 00:15:46,210
any of the cells in your body.
306
00:15:46,312 --> 00:15:47,644
But you've now turned it into
307
00:15:47,746 --> 00:15:51,548
a blast, shredding through
everything in the spacecraft.
308
00:15:51,618 --> 00:15:55,664
And so it turns out
your shielding becomes
309
00:15:55,688 --> 00:15:59,222
the weapon that the cosmic
rays use against you.
310
00:15:59,325 --> 00:16:04,528
But NASA is recruiting
an unexpected ally... the sun.
311
00:16:04,630 --> 00:16:09,299
Can we protect our astronauts
by fighting fire with fire?
312
00:16:17,911 --> 00:16:22,413
Powerful cosmic rays
smash through spaceships.
313
00:16:22,514 --> 00:16:27,518
But how can objects smaller
than an atom carry enough
314
00:16:27,653 --> 00:16:30,455
energy to be
dangerous to astronauts?
315
00:16:30,556 --> 00:16:33,423
Moving objects carry energy.
316
00:16:33,525 --> 00:16:35,960
We call this kinetic energy,
and when
317
00:16:36,028 --> 00:16:39,529
they strike something,
they transform that energy.
318
00:16:40,933 --> 00:16:44,201
When I hit my hand,
the kinetic energy of
319
00:16:44,336 --> 00:16:49,639
my fist transforms into sound
and heat and vibration.
320
00:16:49,709 --> 00:16:51,743
My hand hurts a little from
321
00:16:51,811 --> 00:16:55,613
that impact, from
the transformation of energy.
322
00:16:55,715 --> 00:16:58,149
It's the same thing
with cosmic rays.
323
00:16:58,217 --> 00:17:02,253
When they slam into a human
brain cell or a computer chip,
324
00:17:02,355 --> 00:17:04,955
they dump some energy,
causing damage.
325
00:17:06,326 --> 00:17:09,704
How much damage depends on
their kinetic energy,
326
00:17:09,729 --> 00:17:12,063
and that comes down
to two things...
327
00:17:12,132 --> 00:17:13,964
Mass and speed.
328
00:17:15,000 --> 00:17:18,935
Intuitively, things that are
moving at the same speed,
329
00:17:19,038 --> 00:17:21,384
if they're more massive,
they carry more energy.
330
00:17:21,407 --> 00:17:23,941
A bigger asteroid slamming
into Earth will
331
00:17:24,009 --> 00:17:26,711
do more damage than
a smaller asteroid.
332
00:17:26,813 --> 00:17:29,413
If you double
the mass of an object,
333
00:17:29,516 --> 00:17:32,294
its kinetic energy also doubles.
334
00:17:32,317 --> 00:17:35,052
Although mass is important,
335
00:17:35,153 --> 00:17:36,721
it's not as important as speed.
336
00:17:39,625 --> 00:17:42,704
Speed matters
even more than mass.
337
00:17:42,729 --> 00:17:46,064
The kinetic energy depends
directly on the mass,
338
00:17:46,132 --> 00:17:48,676
but it depends on
the square of the speed.
339
00:17:48,701 --> 00:17:51,380
Here's what that means...
You double the mass,
340
00:17:51,403 --> 00:17:54,439
you have double the kinetic
energy, you double the speed,
341
00:17:54,539 --> 00:17:56,807
you have four times
the kinetic energy.
342
00:17:59,711 --> 00:18:05,650
When it comes to speed,
cosmic rays are the elite.
343
00:18:05,750 --> 00:18:07,896
An ultra-high-energy cosmic ray
344
00:18:07,921 --> 00:18:12,500
detected in 1991 hit
the atmosphere so fast,
345
00:18:12,525 --> 00:18:15,960
scientists called it the
"Oh My God Particle."
346
00:18:19,231 --> 00:18:22,500
This particle was higher
energy than they thought
347
00:18:22,602 --> 00:18:24,335
they would ever, ever see.
348
00:18:24,436 --> 00:18:27,805
Until this fluorescent
streak in the Utah sky,
349
00:18:27,906 --> 00:18:31,186
no one believed a particle
could reach the Earth traveling
350
00:18:31,211 --> 00:18:33,288
so close to the speed of light,
351
00:18:33,313 --> 00:18:36,614
making cosmic ray particles
far more dangerous
352
00:18:36,715 --> 00:18:37,949
than expected.
353
00:18:38,049 --> 00:18:40,218
As you approach
the speed of light,
354
00:18:40,319 --> 00:18:42,752
energy, momentum, mass,
they start
355
00:18:42,822 --> 00:18:44,721
to act a little bit differently.
356
00:18:44,856 --> 00:18:47,525
Einstein's equations of
relativity become important,
357
00:18:47,626 --> 00:18:50,327
because the physics changes,
and the energy it has
358
00:18:50,462 --> 00:18:53,463
becomes much, much,
much stronger.
359
00:18:53,532 --> 00:18:56,377
If a particle is moving
at close to the speed of light,
360
00:18:56,402 --> 00:19:00,505
that means that its energy is
almost at the maximum allowed
361
00:19:00,606 --> 00:19:02,606
by the laws of physics.
362
00:19:04,711 --> 00:19:06,788
It's amazing to think
that something as tiny as
363
00:19:06,813 --> 00:19:09,814
a proton could actually be
dangerous to a human being.
364
00:19:09,949 --> 00:19:13,217
But amazingly, that proton is
moving so fast,
365
00:19:13,318 --> 00:19:15,564
it carries as much energy
as a baseball
366
00:19:15,587 --> 00:19:17,255
thrown at 100 miles an hour.
367
00:19:17,323 --> 00:19:21,159
A baseball contains over
a trillion, trillion protons.
368
00:19:21,259 --> 00:19:25,229
Imagine all that energy
carried by just one particle.
369
00:19:25,330 --> 00:19:29,178
So now you get a sense of just
how risky these can be.
370
00:19:29,201 --> 00:19:31,602
Ultra-high-energy
cosmic rays like
371
00:19:31,703 --> 00:19:35,683
the Oh My God Particle are
like supersonic missiles.
372
00:19:35,708 --> 00:19:38,608
They are the fastest,
but they're so rare,
373
00:19:38,711 --> 00:19:41,811
astronauts are unlikely
to be hit by one.
374
00:19:41,914 --> 00:19:45,994
Solar cosmic rays are like
BB pellets... abundant,
375
00:19:46,019 --> 00:19:48,719
but our spacecraft can
block them.
376
00:19:48,788 --> 00:19:50,453
The biggest threat to
our astronauts,
377
00:19:50,522 --> 00:19:53,124
however, are galactic
cosmic rays.
378
00:19:53,226 --> 00:19:56,105
They come from elsewhere
in the Milky Way.
379
00:19:56,128 --> 00:19:57,862
The combination of their speed
380
00:19:57,997 --> 00:20:01,576
and frequency makes them
the most dangerous.
381
00:20:01,601 --> 00:20:05,681
These galactic cosmic rays
are much more powerful than
382
00:20:05,704 --> 00:20:07,404
the solar cosmic rays,
383
00:20:07,507 --> 00:20:10,786
and they've traveled
enormous distances
384
00:20:10,809 --> 00:20:13,544
to mess you up.
385
00:20:13,613 --> 00:20:17,992
Luckily, our astronauts
have a surprising protector,
386
00:20:18,017 --> 00:20:21,618
a guardian of the solar system,
the sun.
387
00:20:23,155 --> 00:20:24,622
As well as spitting out these
388
00:20:24,723 --> 00:20:29,104
high-energy solar cosmic
ray particles,
389
00:20:29,127 --> 00:20:33,431
the sun is also streaming out
lots of much lower energy
390
00:20:33,499 --> 00:20:36,032
particles of the solar wind.
391
00:20:36,134 --> 00:20:38,180
That outward moving
solar wind acts
392
00:20:38,203 --> 00:20:41,750
as a force field, and
the cosmic rays have to work
393
00:20:41,773 --> 00:20:46,989
their way upstream to get to
Earth far inside this bubble.
394
00:20:47,012 --> 00:20:51,715
The solar wind extends
11 billion miles
395
00:20:51,817 --> 00:20:53,116
around the solar system,
396
00:20:53,251 --> 00:20:57,098
generating a magnetic field
that repels incoming
397
00:20:57,123 --> 00:20:59,423
galactic cosmic rays.
398
00:20:59,525 --> 00:21:01,869
It's almost like
the deflector shield
399
00:21:01,894 --> 00:21:04,105
of the Starship Enterprise.
400
00:21:04,130 --> 00:21:08,932
So the sun's magnetic field
partially helps protect
401
00:21:09,001 --> 00:21:11,335
the Earth and any astronauts
402
00:21:11,403 --> 00:21:12,803
from the incoming radiation.
403
00:21:12,904 --> 00:21:16,707
Not long ago,
our Voyager spacecraft
404
00:21:16,808 --> 00:21:19,943
made it to that boundary
between the sun's bubble
405
00:21:20,046 --> 00:21:21,444
and the galaxy and was able
406
00:21:21,547 --> 00:21:24,648
to study that region, and we
see the difference between
407
00:21:24,750 --> 00:21:27,496
inside the sun's bubble
and what's going on
408
00:21:27,519 --> 00:21:29,097
outside the sun's bubble.
409
00:21:29,122 --> 00:21:31,521
The sun has our back, billions
410
00:21:31,624 --> 00:21:34,659
of miles away,
and that's pretty cool.
411
00:21:34,759 --> 00:21:37,806
The Voyager
space probes discovered
412
00:21:37,829 --> 00:21:40,664
a moving battlefield.
413
00:21:40,732 --> 00:21:44,579
The solar wind behaves a bit
like a storm front on Earth.
414
00:21:44,604 --> 00:21:46,481
Sometimes, it advances.
415
00:21:46,506 --> 00:21:48,739
Sometimes, it retreats.
416
00:21:49,808 --> 00:21:51,808
When the sun's
activity is the highest,
417
00:21:51,911 --> 00:21:54,811
it's spitting out more
solar energetic protons,
418
00:21:54,913 --> 00:21:58,749
but those solar cosmic rays
are much less damaging
419
00:21:58,817 --> 00:21:59,994
than the galactic ones,
420
00:22:00,019 --> 00:22:02,519
so the net is a benefit.
421
00:22:03,690 --> 00:22:06,501
So actually,
ironically, you might find that,
422
00:22:06,526 --> 00:22:10,105
for astronauts, it is safer
to launch missions to Mars
423
00:22:10,128 --> 00:22:14,065
during a period of higher
solar activity, because although
424
00:22:14,133 --> 00:22:18,579
you have more of
the solar particle radiation,
425
00:22:18,604 --> 00:22:22,084
you also get a better
shielding effect
426
00:22:22,107 --> 00:22:23,786
from the solar wind.
427
00:22:23,809 --> 00:22:25,843
The sun's activity goes through
428
00:22:25,944 --> 00:22:28,390
an 11-year cycle
of highs and lows.
429
00:22:28,413 --> 00:22:32,094
The protective bubble follows
the same cycle,
430
00:22:32,117 --> 00:22:36,597
allowing NASA to predict
the safest times to launch.
431
00:22:36,622 --> 00:22:38,521
This is a thorny problem,
and, you know,
432
00:22:38,624 --> 00:22:41,759
we have very smart people
working on it, but we want to
433
00:22:41,861 --> 00:22:44,205
explore space as much as we can,
434
00:22:44,230 --> 00:22:45,829
but we have to lower the risk
435
00:22:45,932 --> 00:22:47,832
to the astronauts
as much as possible.
436
00:22:49,935 --> 00:22:53,436
NASA's fight against
the cosmic invaders continues,
437
00:22:53,506 --> 00:22:56,240
but the biggest mystery remains.
438
00:22:56,308 --> 00:22:59,743
What exactly is launching
the deadliest
439
00:22:59,811 --> 00:23:02,046
galactic cosmic rays?
440
00:23:10,323 --> 00:23:12,901
Every second,
quadrillions of bits
441
00:23:12,924 --> 00:23:15,358
of space shrapnel
race towards Earth
442
00:23:15,428 --> 00:23:17,361
at close to
the speed of light...
443
00:23:17,430 --> 00:23:20,029
Galactic cosmic rays.
444
00:23:21,099 --> 00:23:24,380
The galactic cosmic rays
are like a rifle bullet.
445
00:23:24,403 --> 00:23:27,404
You do not want to get hit
by one of these.
446
00:23:27,539 --> 00:23:31,307
They are invaders from
outside the solar system.
447
00:23:31,411 --> 00:23:34,044
We know they're made by
something powerful
448
00:23:34,113 --> 00:23:35,391
within our galaxy,
449
00:23:35,414 --> 00:23:39,048
so the source should be
easy to detect.
450
00:23:39,151 --> 00:23:41,551
You'd think if one of them
451
00:23:41,653 --> 00:23:44,320
hits a detector on Earth,
that we'd just be able
452
00:23:44,423 --> 00:23:46,056
to point back
in a straight line and say,
453
00:23:46,125 --> 00:23:47,290
"It came from over there."
454
00:23:47,326 --> 00:23:49,104
And then look, is there
something else over there,
455
00:23:49,127 --> 00:23:51,006
like a supernova explosion that
456
00:23:51,029 --> 00:23:52,962
could explain the source
of this?
457
00:23:53,031 --> 00:23:55,576
The problem is
that cosmic rays get
458
00:23:55,601 --> 00:23:59,981
bent as they move
by magnetic fields.
459
00:24:00,006 --> 00:24:01,939
The electric charge
on a cosmic ray
460
00:24:02,040 --> 00:24:04,107
makes it act like
a little magnet,
461
00:24:05,178 --> 00:24:08,045
and the Milky Way
is full of other magnets.
462
00:24:08,114 --> 00:24:12,249
If I'm a cosmic ray just
barreling through the galaxy,
463
00:24:12,351 --> 00:24:14,751
and I encounter
a magnetic field,
464
00:24:14,820 --> 00:24:17,121
I'm gonna slightly
change directions.
465
00:24:17,222 --> 00:24:20,201
Maybe here, maybe there,
maybe up there.
466
00:24:20,226 --> 00:24:23,259
My trajectory is going to
become scrambled.
467
00:24:23,328 --> 00:24:25,962
And after
a few million years or so,
468
00:24:26,065 --> 00:24:28,731
basically all the information
about where it started has
469
00:24:28,800 --> 00:24:30,334
been lost...
It's going in a completely
470
00:24:30,403 --> 00:24:34,305
random direction for all
practical purposes.
471
00:24:34,406 --> 00:24:38,308
But galactic cosmic rays
also have a sidekick,
472
00:24:38,411 --> 00:24:44,048
one that is far less elusive...
Gamma rays.
473
00:24:44,148 --> 00:24:47,351
When a galactic cosmic ray
hits a regular atom out
474
00:24:47,452 --> 00:24:50,320
in space,
it causes this big reaction.
475
00:24:51,624 --> 00:24:53,868
It emits all sorts
of other particles,
476
00:24:53,893 --> 00:24:55,226
including gamma rays,
477
00:24:55,361 --> 00:24:58,729
which are basically extremely
energetic photons of light.
478
00:24:58,830 --> 00:25:02,700
Critically, gamma rays don't
get bent by magnetic fields,
479
00:25:02,835 --> 00:25:04,515
because they don't have
an electric charge,
480
00:25:04,604 --> 00:25:07,538
so they just beeline off in
a straight line along whatever
481
00:25:07,640 --> 00:25:10,840
direction the cosmic ray was
moving in the first place.
482
00:25:10,942 --> 00:25:14,944
So we can look back at where
gamma rays are coming from in
483
00:25:15,013 --> 00:25:18,393
the sky, and that tells us
where there are a lot of
484
00:25:18,416 --> 00:25:19,750
cosmic rays having collisions.
485
00:25:21,053 --> 00:25:24,855
And they've led us
to a prime suspect...
486
00:25:26,125 --> 00:25:27,125
supernovas.
487
00:25:30,695 --> 00:25:31,961
Supernova are some of
488
00:25:32,064 --> 00:25:34,375
the most powerful explosions
in the universe,
489
00:25:34,400 --> 00:25:37,433
and so they're ripe grounds
for these highly energetic,
490
00:25:37,536 --> 00:25:41,704
extremely fast particles
to be created.
491
00:25:41,807 --> 00:25:44,040
When a giant star
runs out of fuel,
492
00:25:44,109 --> 00:25:46,954
it can no longer support its
own weight.
493
00:25:46,979 --> 00:25:48,612
It collapses inward,
494
00:25:50,549 --> 00:25:54,050
triggering a huge explosion,
powerful enough
495
00:25:54,119 --> 00:25:57,699
to smash atoms into tiny pieces.
496
00:25:57,722 --> 00:26:01,002
The explosion pushes out
an expanding cloud
497
00:26:01,027 --> 00:26:04,806
of gas and dust,
the supernova remnant.
498
00:26:04,829 --> 00:26:06,963
And that material,
as it's moving out at
499
00:26:07,066 --> 00:26:08,164
1,000 miles a second,
500
00:26:08,232 --> 00:26:11,535
generates an incredibly
powerful shockwave.
501
00:26:11,604 --> 00:26:14,038
And that shockwave
could be where
502
00:26:14,105 --> 00:26:19,442
a particle swept up in
the shock gets accelerated.
503
00:26:19,545 --> 00:26:21,990
The magnetic fields
inside the cloud
504
00:26:22,013 --> 00:26:24,615
trap the subatomic particles.
505
00:26:24,683 --> 00:26:27,550
Cosmic rays inside of
the supernova remnant
506
00:26:27,619 --> 00:26:29,452
are a lot like being
in a pinball machine.
507
00:26:31,523 --> 00:26:35,503
So you have the shockwave as
the flipper, and then your
508
00:26:35,528 --> 00:26:37,806
magnetic fields
are these bumpers,
509
00:26:37,829 --> 00:26:40,064
prohibiting it from
actually leaving.
510
00:26:41,433 --> 00:26:42,877
They're bouncing back
and forth across
511
00:26:42,902 --> 00:26:45,881
this incredibly energetic shock,
and each time
512
00:26:45,904 --> 00:26:47,037
they bounce back and forth,
513
00:26:47,105 --> 00:26:49,606
the key is they pick up
a little more energy.
514
00:26:50,643 --> 00:26:53,943
When a galactic cosmic ray
gains enough energy,
515
00:26:54,012 --> 00:26:57,259
the magnetic fields can no
longer hold on to it.
516
00:26:57,282 --> 00:26:58,515
It escapes.
517
00:27:01,153 --> 00:27:03,798
The supernova theory
explains the birth
518
00:27:03,823 --> 00:27:06,457
of many of these cosmic bullets.
519
00:27:06,557 --> 00:27:09,371
But then we discovered
a super gamma ray
520
00:27:09,394 --> 00:27:13,130
so powerful, it must have
a completely different
521
00:27:13,231 --> 00:27:14,565
origin story.
522
00:27:14,633 --> 00:27:17,500
So this gamma ray was
incredibly high energy,
523
00:27:17,635 --> 00:27:20,781
which means that the cosmic
ray responsible for it was
524
00:27:20,806 --> 00:27:23,539
probably also extremely
high in energy.
525
00:27:23,642 --> 00:27:25,742
If you fire a bullet into
a pinball machine,
526
00:27:25,778 --> 00:27:27,443
it's not gonna bounce back
and forth.
527
00:27:29,248 --> 00:27:30,948
I'm just gonna break
through the machinery.
528
00:27:31,049 --> 00:27:32,394
The problem is that these
529
00:27:32,417 --> 00:27:35,219
are vastly more energetic
than that.
530
00:27:35,320 --> 00:27:38,099
So there's no way they could
have been bouncing around all
531
00:27:38,124 --> 00:27:41,557
the way up to their current
energies inside of that
532
00:27:41,626 --> 00:27:45,007
particular pinball machine.
533
00:27:45,030 --> 00:27:48,065
There must be
something else in the Milky Way
534
00:27:48,133 --> 00:27:50,433
creating galactic cosmic rays,
535
00:27:50,502 --> 00:27:54,704
something more powerful
than a supernova.
536
00:27:56,307 --> 00:27:59,509
The question is, what?
537
00:27:59,612 --> 00:28:03,047
January 2021.
538
00:28:03,147 --> 00:28:04,792
At an observatory
539
00:28:04,817 --> 00:28:07,796
high up on the side of
a Mexican volcano,
540
00:28:07,819 --> 00:28:11,320
blue light zaps through
water tanks,
541
00:28:12,424 --> 00:28:15,025
signs of incoming gamma rays.
542
00:28:16,828 --> 00:28:19,807
Their trail stretches back
across the Milky Way,
543
00:28:19,832 --> 00:28:24,101
crossing billions of miles,
but suddenly goes cold.
544
00:28:25,336 --> 00:28:28,439
Instead of originating
in a huge explosion,
545
00:28:28,507 --> 00:28:33,443
the trail ends in a cold,
sparse cloud of dust.
546
00:28:33,545 --> 00:28:36,713
Molecular clouds,
at first glance, seem like
547
00:28:36,816 --> 00:28:38,292
one of the most boring,
548
00:28:38,317 --> 00:28:41,117
innocuous places in
the universe.
549
00:28:41,220 --> 00:28:45,500
You can barely even see them
without an infrared telescope.
550
00:28:45,523 --> 00:28:48,258
They're not events
like supernova
551
00:28:48,359 --> 00:28:50,326
that have enormously
high energies.
552
00:28:50,429 --> 00:28:52,462
So you wouldn't expect it
to create super
553
00:28:52,530 --> 00:28:54,276
energetic particles.
554
00:28:54,299 --> 00:28:57,034
Something must be
hidden in the cloud,
555
00:28:57,103 --> 00:29:01,383
something powerful enough to
accelerate the cosmic rays.
556
00:29:01,406 --> 00:29:03,484
We just don't know what.
557
00:29:03,509 --> 00:29:06,410
We can't see inside
the molecular clouds,
558
00:29:06,545 --> 00:29:09,747
so it could be that,
deep inside them,
559
00:29:09,847 --> 00:29:13,317
there are clusters of newborn
stars that are cranking out
560
00:29:13,419 --> 00:29:14,796
these cosmic rays,
561
00:29:14,819 --> 00:29:18,756
but we don't know if even
the crankiest of stars are
562
00:29:18,824 --> 00:29:23,505
capable of producing cosmic
rays at these energies.
563
00:29:23,528 --> 00:29:25,662
Just two months later,
564
00:29:25,763 --> 00:29:29,232
in March of 2021,
we get another clue.
565
00:29:29,334 --> 00:29:31,934
Scientists detect
gamma rays coming
566
00:29:32,037 --> 00:29:35,239
from the Cygnus Cocoon Nebula.
567
00:29:35,339 --> 00:29:37,941
It's a dense molecular
cloud with
568
00:29:38,042 --> 00:29:41,612
a difference...
At the center is a cavity.
569
00:29:41,713 --> 00:29:46,450
Hundreds of closely packed
stars push against the dust
570
00:29:46,551 --> 00:29:48,818
and gas, including
571
00:29:48,887 --> 00:29:52,855
huge bright stars
called spectral type O and B
572
00:29:53,925 --> 00:29:56,160
Spectral type O and B stars are
573
00:29:56,228 --> 00:29:58,362
some of the hottest stars in
our universe.
574
00:30:00,031 --> 00:30:02,598
The massive stars
blast out solar winds far
575
00:30:02,733 --> 00:30:05,035
stronger than the wind
produced by our sun.
576
00:30:06,704 --> 00:30:09,038
When you think about all these
stars forming together,
577
00:30:09,141 --> 00:30:12,342
they are all putting off
a wind of high-energy particles
578
00:30:12,443 --> 00:30:13,644
from their surfaces.
579
00:30:13,679 --> 00:30:16,712
These winds collide
and form big shock structures
580
00:30:16,816 --> 00:30:18,648
between all of
these young stars.
581
00:30:18,750 --> 00:30:20,951
You're getting
so much energy from
582
00:30:21,053 --> 00:30:22,772
so many different winds,
coming from so many
583
00:30:22,855 --> 00:30:27,356
different directions, that it
forms a boiling mass of
584
00:30:27,425 --> 00:30:29,471
shockwaves and magnetic fields.
585
00:30:29,494 --> 00:30:30,961
It's a pinball machine
586
00:30:31,029 --> 00:30:34,964
on a far bigger scale...
The magnetic fields are stronger
587
00:30:35,034 --> 00:30:36,278
than a supernova's,
588
00:30:36,301 --> 00:30:40,582
trapping and accelerating
the more energetic cosmic rays
589
00:30:40,605 --> 00:30:41,782
for longer.
590
00:30:41,807 --> 00:30:44,240
One important thing about
star clusters is that
591
00:30:44,343 --> 00:30:46,988
they are around for millions
and millions of years.
592
00:30:47,011 --> 00:30:49,947
It's not just a one-off event
like a supernova.
593
00:30:49,981 --> 00:30:52,894
And so you've got
this magnetic field
594
00:30:52,917 --> 00:30:56,118
and these shocks happening
over a long period of time,
595
00:30:56,255 --> 00:30:58,521
and that may be what you need
to accelerate cosmic rays.
596
00:30:59,924 --> 00:31:04,428
Molecular clouds may
shoot out galactic cosmic rays,
597
00:31:04,529 --> 00:31:07,663
but what fires the hypersonic
space missiles,
598
00:31:07,732 --> 00:31:10,800
the ultra-high-energy
cosmic rays?
599
00:31:10,935 --> 00:31:14,805
The culprit may be hiding out
in distant galaxies...
600
00:31:14,940 --> 00:31:18,107
Supermassive black holes.
601
00:31:25,217 --> 00:31:27,517
Ultra-high-energy
cosmic rays are
602
00:31:27,619 --> 00:31:31,221
the hypersonic missiles of
the particle world.
603
00:31:31,289 --> 00:31:33,300
If a photon of light,
the fastest thing in
604
00:31:33,325 --> 00:31:37,227
the universe, had a race with
an ultra-high-energy cosmic ray,
605
00:31:37,328 --> 00:31:41,664
it would be so close,
that after 200,000 years,
606
00:31:41,700 --> 00:31:44,500
that photon would be
half an inch ahead of
607
00:31:44,635 --> 00:31:46,381
the ultra-high-energy
cosmic ray.
608
00:31:46,404 --> 00:31:50,941
They appear to come from
beyond our Milky Way galaxy.
609
00:31:51,042 --> 00:31:55,811
Our galaxy is
100,000 light years across.
610
00:31:55,914 --> 00:31:59,615
The next nearest galaxy to us
is two million light years away.
611
00:31:59,718 --> 00:32:01,751
So these are traveling to us
612
00:32:01,853 --> 00:32:04,820
across millions and billions
of light years.
613
00:32:04,923 --> 00:32:09,326
How do you accelerate this tiny
614
00:32:09,461 --> 00:32:13,963
little particle to such
insane velocities?
615
00:32:14,066 --> 00:32:15,876
What is the power source?
616
00:32:15,901 --> 00:32:19,536
What in the universe has
that kind of capability?
617
00:32:19,605 --> 00:32:22,405
Where's the Death Star here?
618
00:32:22,540 --> 00:32:25,142
Their speed makes
them dangerous,
619
00:32:25,210 --> 00:32:29,046
but it also makes it easier to
find their source.
620
00:32:29,114 --> 00:32:32,415
Ultra-high-energy cosmic rays
are moving so rapidly,
621
00:32:32,550 --> 00:32:34,518
that they're really not
affected that much by
622
00:32:34,619 --> 00:32:35,751
magnetic fields.
623
00:32:35,820 --> 00:32:37,999
It's like a bullet going
through a fisherman's net.
624
00:32:38,022 --> 00:32:41,802
And so they're coming
mostly in a straight line.
625
00:32:41,826 --> 00:32:44,161
When they're coming in a
straight line, and we can point
626
00:32:44,229 --> 00:32:45,707
back to their origin,
627
00:32:45,730 --> 00:32:49,477
and that's something we can
use to figure out where
628
00:32:49,500 --> 00:32:50,933
and how they're getting
accelerated.
629
00:32:52,904 --> 00:32:54,604
In the Argentinian desert,
630
00:32:54,707 --> 00:32:58,240
the Pierre Auger Cosmic Ray
Detector completes
631
00:32:58,309 --> 00:33:00,410
a 12-year study of the sky.
632
00:33:02,647 --> 00:33:05,548
It confirms that most
galaxies have a supermassive
633
00:33:05,650 --> 00:33:07,351
black hole at their center,
634
00:33:07,419 --> 00:33:11,153
but only a few are active,
shooting out energy.
635
00:33:11,256 --> 00:33:15,057
These active
supermassive black holes also
636
00:33:15,126 --> 00:33:18,428
blast out ultra-high-energy
cosmic rays.
637
00:33:19,431 --> 00:33:23,278
Supermassive black holes are
already extremely powerful.
638
00:33:23,301 --> 00:33:25,035
So it makes a lot
of sense to me that
639
00:33:25,136 --> 00:33:28,238
the ultra-high-energy cosmic
rays could originate at
640
00:33:28,339 --> 00:33:30,440
supermassive black holes.
641
00:33:30,509 --> 00:33:35,690
The M87 galaxy is
54 million light years away.
642
00:33:35,713 --> 00:33:38,292
It's famous
because we took a photo
643
00:33:38,317 --> 00:33:41,695
of the supermassive black hole
at its core.
644
00:33:41,720 --> 00:33:45,967
So the event horizon telescope
image of the swirling vortex of
645
00:33:45,990 --> 00:33:48,458
gas around
that central black hole,
646
00:33:48,527 --> 00:33:50,559
that shadow that
you can't actually see,
647
00:33:50,628 --> 00:33:55,432
that could be a site for
the unbelievably energetic
648
00:33:55,534 --> 00:33:56,932
acceleration of cosmic rays.
649
00:33:57,035 --> 00:34:00,280
In March 2021,
650
00:34:00,305 --> 00:34:03,306
scientists analyze
the data further.
651
00:34:03,442 --> 00:34:07,309
This new image
of M87 shows very clear
652
00:34:07,445 --> 00:34:08,945
magnetic field lines,
653
00:34:09,047 --> 00:34:11,815
which is really stunning and
reminds us of how much energy
654
00:34:11,916 --> 00:34:15,052
could be contained close to
the supermassive black hole.
655
00:34:15,152 --> 00:34:17,820
Black holes have enormous power,
656
00:34:17,922 --> 00:34:20,902
but how do they transfer some
of that energy
657
00:34:20,925 --> 00:34:22,159
to a tiny particle?
658
00:34:22,260 --> 00:34:25,327
One possibility for how
supermassive black holes
659
00:34:25,463 --> 00:34:27,630
could accelerate such
enormously energetic
660
00:34:27,733 --> 00:34:31,601
cosmic rays is that they
actually drag or capture via
661
00:34:31,735 --> 00:34:32,936
their gravity
662
00:34:33,070 --> 00:34:36,405
preexisting normal cosmic rays,
which are already
663
00:34:36,541 --> 00:34:37,840
extremely energetic,
664
00:34:37,943 --> 00:34:41,811
and then give them an extra
boost to even higher energies.
665
00:34:41,914 --> 00:34:45,047
So supermassive
black holes bend the fabric
666
00:34:45,117 --> 00:34:46,449
of spacetime around them,
667
00:34:46,550 --> 00:34:50,597
and even light particles can
get stuck, and cosmic rays are
668
00:34:50,621 --> 00:34:53,657
no different... they can also be
attracted by the supermassive
669
00:34:53,757 --> 00:34:57,360
black holes and get drawn
into their orbit.
670
00:34:57,461 --> 00:35:00,809
It makes sense that
the black hole captures
671
00:35:00,833 --> 00:35:02,498
passing cosmic rays,
672
00:35:02,601 --> 00:35:05,635
but how do the particles
escape its clutches
673
00:35:05,737 --> 00:35:07,103
and hurtle towards us?
674
00:35:08,474 --> 00:35:12,253
M87 has a fearsome weapon
in its arsenal.
675
00:35:12,277 --> 00:35:17,291
Enormous jets of energy
blast out of its poles.
676
00:35:17,315 --> 00:35:20,851
So M87's jets are
spectacularly large,
677
00:35:20,985 --> 00:35:23,954
larger than the entire galaxy
that houses this black hole
678
00:35:24,056 --> 00:35:25,422
that's launching those jets.
679
00:35:25,523 --> 00:35:28,157
The powerful jets
may give the cosmic rays
680
00:35:28,193 --> 00:35:29,559
a speed injection,
681
00:35:29,661 --> 00:35:33,163
transforming them from
galactic rifle bullets into
682
00:35:33,264 --> 00:35:36,500
ultra-high-energy
hypersonic missiles.
683
00:35:36,601 --> 00:35:41,036
So imagine if you had
a regular bullet that
684
00:35:41,139 --> 00:35:43,784
you fired out of a gun
at high speed,
685
00:35:43,809 --> 00:35:47,943
and as its flying,
a little rocket motor in
686
00:35:48,079 --> 00:35:52,293
the bullet kicks in and takes
it up to even higher speeds.
687
00:35:52,317 --> 00:35:54,650
That's sort of what's
happening to
688
00:35:54,753 --> 00:35:57,119
the cosmic rays in these jets.
689
00:35:58,456 --> 00:36:00,356
Black holes may be
the supervillains
690
00:36:00,458 --> 00:36:02,003
we've been looking for,
691
00:36:02,027 --> 00:36:04,905
firing out the fastest
cosmic bullets,
692
00:36:04,929 --> 00:36:08,876
but cosmic rays have
a superpower of their own.
693
00:36:08,900 --> 00:36:10,400
They're time travelers.
694
00:36:18,110 --> 00:36:20,710
Cosmic rays race through
the universe at close
695
00:36:20,844 --> 00:36:24,813
to the speed of light...
Like subatomic bullets,
696
00:36:24,916 --> 00:36:28,918
they can pierce spaceships
and harm astronauts.
697
00:36:31,923 --> 00:36:34,623
But down on Earth,
we're protected.
698
00:36:36,561 --> 00:36:41,675
Out of all of the rocky inner
planets in the solar system,
699
00:36:41,699 --> 00:36:44,201
the Earth is the only one
to generate
700
00:36:44,335 --> 00:36:48,304
its own deflector shield
against this cosmic radiation.
701
00:36:48,373 --> 00:36:50,606
That's amazing.
And that's where life is.
702
00:36:50,742 --> 00:36:54,210
I don't think that's actually
all that much of a coincidence.
703
00:36:54,346 --> 00:36:58,047
The Earth creates
its own magnetic field.
704
00:36:58,115 --> 00:37:01,217
The Earth has this wonderful
active molten core of metal.
705
00:37:01,320 --> 00:37:04,766
All of that metal is moving
around inside the Earth,
706
00:37:04,789 --> 00:37:07,556
and that moving metal generates
a strong magnetic field.
707
00:37:07,659 --> 00:37:09,903
These cosmic rays are
electrically charged.
708
00:37:09,927 --> 00:37:11,561
They follow a magnetic field.
709
00:37:11,663 --> 00:37:13,963
So our magnetic field
deflects most
710
00:37:14,065 --> 00:37:15,931
of the cosmic rays around it.
711
00:37:16,034 --> 00:37:18,179
The shield is not perfect.
712
00:37:18,202 --> 00:37:21,248
Some cosmic rays do get through,
713
00:37:21,273 --> 00:37:24,284
but then they hit
our second line of defense...
714
00:37:24,309 --> 00:37:25,786
The atmosphere.
715
00:37:25,811 --> 00:37:27,844
One of the things we have to
be thankful for is
716
00:37:27,978 --> 00:37:30,512
our atmosphere... not only
does it give us air to breathe,
717
00:37:30,648 --> 00:37:32,492
but it protects us
from these space bullets.
718
00:37:32,516 --> 00:37:37,753
The atmosphere is like
a missile defense system.
719
00:37:37,822 --> 00:37:40,601
Cosmic rays collide
with air molecules,
720
00:37:40,626 --> 00:37:44,126
shattering into
safer, smaller particles.
721
00:37:44,262 --> 00:37:48,364
The most common ones
are called muons.
722
00:37:49,701 --> 00:37:54,204
The muons are the children
of the cosmic rays.
723
00:37:54,306 --> 00:37:57,539
They're produced by
these high-energy collisions
724
00:37:57,608 --> 00:37:58,885
in our upper atmosphere that
725
00:37:58,909 --> 00:38:02,545
create these showers of
muons that then come down to
726
00:38:02,646 --> 00:38:03,757
the surface.
727
00:38:03,780 --> 00:38:05,994
There's as many as four of
these cosmic rays passing
728
00:38:06,018 --> 00:38:07,594
through my hand every second.
729
00:38:07,619 --> 00:38:09,719
They're passing through
your body right now.
730
00:38:09,788 --> 00:38:11,755
Muons are so abundant,
731
00:38:11,856 --> 00:38:14,824
we don't need a high-tech
observatory to detect them,
732
00:38:14,958 --> 00:38:18,762
just a few things you'd find
in a high school science lab.
733
00:38:18,829 --> 00:38:23,132
A small aquarium that I've
attached a small piece of felt
734
00:38:23,233 --> 00:38:24,778
to the bottom.
735
00:38:24,802 --> 00:38:27,804
Some frozen carbon dioxide,
some dry ice,
736
00:38:27,905 --> 00:38:33,788
hence the safety gloves,
a flat piece of metal like this,
737
00:38:33,811 --> 00:38:35,644
some isopropyl alcohol.
738
00:38:37,416 --> 00:38:40,050
Then I flip the whole thing over
739
00:38:40,150 --> 00:38:43,320
onto the bottom, and I wait.
740
00:38:45,523 --> 00:38:49,503
So what's happening is that
the alcohol in the felt is
741
00:38:49,527 --> 00:38:52,907
evaporating in sinking down,
and because
742
00:38:52,931 --> 00:38:55,710
that bottom layer is
so cold from the dry ice,
743
00:38:55,733 --> 00:39:00,135
it forms a super saturated
cloud of alcohol vapor.
744
00:39:01,505 --> 00:39:05,286
When the charged particles
pass through the cold vapor,
745
00:39:05,309 --> 00:39:09,713
they create tiny ghostly trails.
746
00:39:09,815 --> 00:39:12,592
What we're looking for
are the muons,
747
00:39:12,617 --> 00:39:16,219
the subatomic particles
generated when a cosmic ray
748
00:39:16,353 --> 00:39:18,699
strikes the upper atmosphere.
749
00:39:18,724 --> 00:39:21,824
Each silvery thread
in the cloud chamber
750
00:39:21,960 --> 00:39:25,005
is the sign of a cosmic ray.
751
00:39:25,030 --> 00:39:28,876
These muons should never
make it down to Earth at all.
752
00:39:28,900 --> 00:39:33,981
They only live for 2.2
microseconds before breaking up,
753
00:39:34,005 --> 00:39:35,704
not enough time to travel
754
00:39:35,806 --> 00:39:38,686
through six miles of
Earth's atmosphere.
755
00:39:38,710 --> 00:39:41,844
Naively, we would think there's
no way that a muon could make it
756
00:39:41,980 --> 00:39:44,146
from the upper atmosphere
to where we are now
757
00:39:44,248 --> 00:39:45,193
without decaying.
758
00:39:45,217 --> 00:39:46,994
It turns out they do,
and the only
759
00:39:47,018 --> 00:39:50,898
way they do this is
they effectively time travel.
760
00:39:50,922 --> 00:39:54,423
The muons move at 98 percent
the speed of light.
761
00:39:55,827 --> 00:39:57,505
They move so fast,
762
00:39:57,528 --> 00:40:01,063
they experience what Einstein
called time dilation.
763
00:40:01,132 --> 00:40:04,733
Albert Einstein taught us that
we live
764
00:40:04,802 --> 00:40:06,735
in a space time,
and so that means
765
00:40:06,804 --> 00:40:10,340
that all measurements of
lengths and durations of time
766
00:40:10,409 --> 00:40:11,940
are relative.
767
00:40:12,043 --> 00:40:13,809
From a muon's perspective,
768
00:40:13,911 --> 00:40:17,447
we humans move
incredibly slowly.
769
00:40:17,516 --> 00:40:20,795
They're moving so fast that,
for them,
770
00:40:20,818 --> 00:40:23,719
time is stretched out.
771
00:40:23,822 --> 00:40:27,856
What we found by measuring
the energy and the lifetime of
772
00:40:27,958 --> 00:40:33,228
muons is that as muons got
closer to the speed of light,
773
00:40:33,331 --> 00:40:37,733
their lifetime increased,
because to them, time is
774
00:40:37,802 --> 00:40:41,237
slowing down, exactly the way
Einstein predicted.
775
00:40:41,338 --> 00:40:45,385
Their lifespan is
extended by more than 20 times
776
00:40:45,409 --> 00:40:46,608
from our perspective,
777
00:40:46,710 --> 00:40:49,012
so they make it to the ground.
778
00:40:51,949 --> 00:40:55,952
Cosmic rays are
the ultimate space travelers.
779
00:40:56,054 --> 00:40:59,722
They're awe-inspiring speed
allows us to unlock
780
00:40:59,824 --> 00:41:03,425
hidden processes and test
our theories of physics.
781
00:41:04,728 --> 00:41:06,463
They're way more energetic
than anything
782
00:41:06,530 --> 00:41:08,465
we can do in a laboratory
on Earth.
783
00:41:08,532 --> 00:41:10,400
So that means we can unlock
all kinds of
784
00:41:10,501 --> 00:41:13,036
new domains about physics
at the highest,
785
00:41:13,137 --> 00:41:15,237
most extreme energies.
786
00:41:15,306 --> 00:41:17,851
They're our best link
to the farthest reaches of
787
00:41:17,876 --> 00:41:19,641
the cosmos.
788
00:41:19,710 --> 00:41:23,445
To me, it's really exciting
that we're actually sampling
789
00:41:23,547 --> 00:41:26,315
pieces of matter from distant
790
00:41:26,418 --> 00:41:30,197
stars, from distant galaxies,
and we're getting them here at
791
00:41:30,222 --> 00:41:31,954
Earth and studying them.
792
00:41:33,925 --> 00:41:37,405
There are so many amazingly
violent events in the universe,
793
00:41:37,429 --> 00:41:40,307
the birth of black holes,
exploding stars.
794
00:41:40,331 --> 00:41:42,364
These cosmic rays that are
going through your body
795
00:41:42,432 --> 00:41:45,579
right now are messengers
from those events.
796
00:41:45,603 --> 00:41:47,503
In some way,
you're still connected to
797
00:41:47,606 --> 00:41:49,938
those events, millions
of light years away.
798
00:41:51,842 --> 00:41:54,043
These are messengers
from the universe,
799
00:41:54,112 --> 00:41:56,012
telling us about how it works.
63837
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